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SILK  THROWING 
AND  WASTE  SILK  SPINNING 


SILK  THROWING 


AND 


WASTE  SILK  SPINNING 


HOLLINS    EAYNEE 


WITH     ONE     HUNDRED     AND     SEVENTEEN     ILLUSTRATIONS 


LONDON 

SCOTT,     GEEENWOOD      &     SON 
8  BROADWAY,  LUDGATE   HILL,  E.G. 


CANADA  :    THE    COPP    CLARK    CO.    LTD.,    TORONTO 
UNITED    STATES  :    D.    VAN    NOSTRAND    CO.,    NEW    YORK 

1903 

[A  II  rights  remain  ^v^th  Scott,  Greenwood  &  Son] 


\c 


\ 


PREFACE 


A  DESIRE  having  been  expressed  in  many  quarters  for  a  book  dealing 
with  silk  yarns  and  the  machinery  and  processes  necessary  to  convert 
the  fine  fibre  of  the  silkworm  into  a  weavable  thread,  the  author 
arranged  with  the  proprietors  of  the  well-known  journal,  the  Textile 
Manufacturer,  to  publish  in  that  monthly  a  series  of  articles  dealing 
with  these  subjects. 

These  articles  revised,  and  further  illustrated,  form  the  contents 
of  this  book,  and  it  is  hoped  that  this  work  will  be  a  handy  reference 
volume,  and  of  great  assistance  to  manufacturers  of  textile  fibres  who 
may  desire  to  use  silk  in  their  fabrics  in  some  of  its  many  forms ;  and 
to  teachers  and  students  who  wish  to  have  a  knowledge  of  the  Queen 
of  Textile  Fibres. 

The  author  has  endeavoured  to  concisely  describe  the  principles 
of  Silk  Throwing  and  Waste  Silk  Spinning,  as  exemplified  in  the 
machinery  employed  in  these  two  industries,  most  of  the  illustrations 
being  made  in  section,  or  diagrammatically,  to  facilitate  their  com- 
prehension by  a  student  ignorant  of  the  trades  concerned;  and 
machinery  calculations  have  been  purposely  kept  out  in  order  not  to 
divert  attention  from  the  main  principle  of  each  process. 

The  author,  who  has  personally  had  many  years'  experience  in 
the  silk  trade,  takes  this  opportunity  of  thanking  his  many  friends, 
machinists,  managers  of  works,  foremen,  and  workmen  who  have 
given,  in  their  respective  capacities,  invaluable  assistance  in  the  pre- 
paration of  this  book. 

H.  R. 

November  1903. 

V 

• 

241370 


CONTENTS 


PAGK 

PREFACE      ........  v 

LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS     .            .            .                        .  .            .  ix 

GLOSSARY    ...            .            .            .            .            .  .            .  xiii 

INTRODUCTION         .            .            .            .            .            .  .  1 

CHAPTER  I 
RAW  SILK — THE  SILKWORM — EGG-HATCHING 

Spinning  Cocoon — Sericin — Fibroin — Varieties  of  Moth — Bombyx  inori — 
Antherea  mylitta — Yama  mai  —  Pernyi — Attacus  Cynthia — Wild 
Worms  .  ...  .  .  .  .  8 

CHAPTER  II 

RAW  SILK — COCOON  REELING  AND  QUALITIES  OF  SILK 

Cocoon  Reeling — Tsatlee  Reel — Re-reeling — Filature — Chop  Marks  of 
China,  Japan,  (Bengal,  and  Chief  European  Silks — Doppione — Crops 
—Shipping  of  Silks— Terms  of  Sale  .  .  .  .  .12 

CHAPTER  III 

SILK  THROWING 

Singles— Tram — Organzine — No-Throw — Operations  of  Splitting — Sorting 
— Washing — Drying — Winding — Cleaning  —  Folding  —  Spinning  or 
Throwing — Reeling — Sizing  or  Deniering — Make-up — Weights  .  22 

CHAPTER  IV 

SILK  WASTE  SPINNING — SILK  WASTES 

Various  Methods  of  producing  Wastes — Qualities  of  Wastes,  namely, 
Steam  Waste,  Frisons,  Wadding,  Tussah,  Nankin  Buttons,  China 
Wastes,  Shanghai  Waste,  Seychuen,  Indian  Wastes,  Canton  Wastes, 
Re-reel,  Punjum,  China  Curlies,  Long  Wastes,  Japan  Wastes — Terms 
of  Sale — Inspection  of  Wastes — Packing  and  Shipping — Landing — 
European  Wastes — Terms  of  Sale  .  ,  .  .','-<  .36 

CHAPTER  V 
THE  PREPARATION  OF  SILK  WASTE  FOR  DEGUMMING 

Bale  Opening — Water — Water  Softening — Soap     .••  .-.          .•  .45 

vii 


viii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  VI 
SILK  WASTE  DEGUMMING 

PAGE 

Schapping  and  Discharging— Recipes  for  Silk  Boiling— Drying — Per- 
centage of  Gum  lost  in  Boiling — Bleaching — Picking — Foreign  Matters 
in  Various  Wastes — Carbonisation — Conditioning — Suppleing  .  53 

CHAPTER  VII 
THE  OPENING  AND  DRESSING  OF  WASTES  (COMBING) 

Cocoon  and  Waste  Beating — Opening — Lapping — Filling — Flat  Dressing 
Frame — Circular  Dressing  Frame — Continuous  Dressing  Frame — 
Automatic  Screwing-up  Machine — Planing  Machine — Diagrammatic 
Explanation  of  Principles  of  Silk  Dressing  Machinery  .  .  74 

CHAPTEK  VIII 
SILK  WASTE  DRAWING  OR  PREPARING  MACHINERY 

Long  Spinning — Examination  of  Dressed  Silk — Weighing — Spreading — 
Re-lapping — Sett  Frame — Drawing  Heads — Gill  Roving — Dandy  or 
Fine  Roving— Intersecting  Spreading — Intersecting  Drawing— Rotary 
Drawing — Rotary  Roving — Dimensions  of  Drawing  Machinery  .  106 

CHAPTER  IX 

SHORT  SPINNING  MACHINERY 

Short  Spinning — Mixings — Scutching — Carding — Drawing —  Slubbing  and 

Fine  Roving  Frames      .  .  .  .  .  .  .128 

CHAPTER  X 
SPINNING  AND  FINISHING  PROCESSES 

Fly  Spinning  Frames — Cap  Spinning  Frames — Winding — Copping — Twist- 
ing— Cleaning  and  Gassing — Reeling— Washing  Yarns — Counts  of 
English  Yarns — Tables  of  Count — Tables  of  Twist  per  Inch  for  Various 
Purposes — Lustreing— Schappe  Counts  .  .  .  .133 

CHAPTER  XI 

UTILISATION  OF  WASTE  PRODUCTS 

Noils — Fly — Laps  — Roving  Waste— Spinning  Waste  —  Doublers  and 
Winding  Waste — Gassing  Waste — Noil  Spinning— Scutching— Card- 
ing— Derby  Doubler — Combing — Exhaust  Noil  Spinning — Garnetting 
—Mule  Spinning  .  .  .  .  .  .  .148 

INDEX  .  .     155 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG.  PAGE 

1.  Silkworm  ........         4 

2.  Hombyx  mori,  larvae,  cocoon,  moth       .  .  .  .  .5 

3.  Antherea  mytttta,  cocoon,  moth            .  .  .  .  .7 

4.  Yama  mat,  larvae,  cocoon,  moth           .  .  .  .  .8 

5.  Attacus  Cynthia,  larvae,  cocoon,  moth  .  .  .  .  .10 

6.  Cocoon  reeling  machine              .             .  .  .  .  .12 

7.  Book  of  silk ;  heads  of  silk        .             .  .  .  22 

8.  Splitting  mosses             .             .             .  .  .  .  .23 

9.  Silk  winding      ........       26 

10.  Clearer  or  cleaning  bars              .             .  .  .  .  .27 

11.  Silk  doubling     .            .            .            .  .  .  .  .29 

12.  Throwing  mill  or  spinning        .             .  .  .  .  .30 

13.  Flyer      .                          .             .             .  .  .  .  .       31 

14.  Keeling  .             .             .             ...  .  .32 

15.  Denier  scale        .             .             .             .  .  .  .  .33 

16.  Bale  splitting     .             .             .            .  \-  .  .  .46 

17.  Waste  opener     .             .'            .             .  .  .  .  .46 

18.  Bale  opener  (side  elevation)       .             .  ...  .  .47 

19.  Bale  opener  (plan)         .             .             .  .  .  .  .47 

20.  Copper  ladle       .             .             .            %.  .  '        .  .  .48 

21.  Soap  vat             .             .             .             .  .  .  .           .  .  .50 

22.  Soap  mixer         .             .             .             .^  -_.  .  .  .52 

23.  Schapping  vat    ........       53 

24.  Waste  washer  or  stamper           .             .  .  .  .  .55 

25.  Boiling, tub         .             .             .             .  .  .  .  .56 

26.  Rake      .            .,                       .            .  .  .  .  .57 

27.  Hydro  extractor  (side  elevation)            .  .  .  .  .58 

28.  Hydro  extractor             .             .             .  .  .58 

29.  Mangle  .                          .             .             .  .  .-  .59 

30.  Brins      .             .             .             .             .  .  .  ...       60 

31.  Drying  machine             .            .            .  .  .  .  .63 

32.  Carbonising  chamber     .......       68 

33A  and  33s.  Conditioning  floor      .             .  .  .  .  .69 

34.  Conditioning  shelves      .            .            .  .  .  .70 


x  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

35.  Plan  of  bale  room,  washing  house,  and  conditioning  floor        .  .70 

36.  Soaping  or  conditioning  machine           .             .             .          ..  .71 

37.  Supple  machine,  worm  driven    .             .             .             .             .  .71 

38.  Supple  machine,  wheel  driven  .             ....  .72 

39.  Cocoon  beater     .             .             .           •  «.-..          .             .  .74 

40.  Cocoon  beater     .             .             .             .  •          .             ...  .       75 

41.  Opening  machine  for  cocoons     .             .             .             .             .  .76 

42.  Opening  machine  for  waste        .             .             .-•*..  .77 

43.  Opening  machine  teeth .             .             .             .            .  .77 

44.  Filling  engine    ...             .             ,            .             .  .78 

45.  Filling  engine    .            .             .          — .             .            .             .  .79 

46.  Dressing  boards            ' .    •         .             .             .           t  „•   ,         .  .79 

47.  Stripping  (section)          .:            .            »             .             .             .  .80 

48.  Heckle   .             .             .             .-           v            .            /           i  ":  .       82 

49.  Flat  dressing  frame  (side  section)          .             .          :  .             ;  "  .82 

50.  Flat  dressing  frame  with  stripping  drum           .             .             .  .       83 

51.  Flat  dressing  frame  (end  view)  .             .          •  ".          '•'.  "         .  .       84 

52.  Flat  dressing  frame  lifting  gear             .'           .  <           .            .  .       85 

53.  Combs,  cards,  and  dressed  silk  .             .*            . '           .             .  .       85 

54.  Inframe .                                                   ..-'           .            .             .  .86 

55.  Bookboards  and  sliders .          .  .            »•           .            .             .  .       86 

56.  Dressed  and  not  dressed  strips  of  silk   .-            .            /            .  .87 

57.  Turning-inboard            .            '.             .*           .             *             .  .87 

58.  Plan  of  set  of  flat  frames            .             .•           .            .             .  .90 

59.  Circular  dressing  frame .           .  .             .•            .   '         .            .  .92 

60.  Rod  stripping    .             .            .'          -.-            .-           .            .•  .       93 

61.  Lap  filling  machine        .            .             .            ..-        .    .            .-  .94 

62.  Continuous  dressing  frame  (end  view)  .             .            .            .  .96 
63A  and  63s.  Continuous  dressing  frame  (plan  and  side  elevation)  .       96 

64.  Continuous  dressing  frame        ....            •*           •'           •  •       97 

65.  Continuous  dressing  frame  (plan  of  set  of  frames)         .            .'  .       99 

66.  Screwing-up  machine    .            .,          »•           .            .         '   .  .     100 

67.  Screwing-up  machine     .             .             .  •           .            .             .  .101 

68.  Planing  machine  for  bookboards            .*           .:           .             .  .     102 

69.  Planing  machine  for  bookboards            .             .             .             .  .102 

70.  Diagram  of  dressing  frames  action         .....     104 

71.  Silk  picking  table           .             .             .             .             .             .  .108 

72.  Silk  picking  table  (side  section)  .  .  .  ...     108 

73.  Drafts    .             .             .             .             ....  .108 

74.  Faller     .                                       .             .             .             .             .  .     110 

75.  Gill  spreader      ........     110 

76.  Silk  spreading  .             .             .             .             .             .             .  .110 

77.  Gill  spreader      .            .            .            .            .            .-           .  .111 

78.  Sett  frame          .             .             .             .             .             .             .  .112 

79.  Drawing  heads  .  .......     113 

80.  Section  of  drawing  head             .             .             .             .             .  .     114 

81.  Plan  of  set  of  drawing  heads      .             .             .             .             .  .115 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  xi 

FIG.  PAGE 

82.  Gill  roving  frame          .  .             .             .             .             .             .116 

83.  Gill  roving  frame  (side  elevation)         .  .             .             .             .117 

84.  Gill  rover  fallers  ....                                       .118 

85.  Dandy  rover  (side  elevation)    ......     118 

86.  80  spindle  cone  rover   .  .             .             .             .             .             .119 

87.  Intersector       ........     120 

88.  Slivers  .........     121 

89.  Drafting  .....                                       .     122 

90.  Rotary  drawing  frame  (section)  .....     122 

91.  Rotary  drawing  frame .  .             .             .             .             .             .123 

92.  Rotary  roving  frame    .  .             .             .             .             .             .124 

93.  Scutching         ........     128 

94.  Flat  card  (section)        .  .             .             .             .             .             .129 

95.  Flat  card          .  .             .             .             .             .             .             .129 

96.  Drawing  head  (section)  .    ,                      .             .             .             .130 

97.  Improved  drawing  frame          .  .             .             .             .             .131 

98.  Slabbing  frame  .......     131 

99.  Flyer  spinning  frame   ........     133 

100.  Flyer  spinning  frame   .  .             .             .             .             .             .134 

101.  100  spindle-cap  spinning  frame  .....     136 

102.  Doubler  winder  .......     138 

103.  Ring  twisting  frame     .  .             .             .             .             .             .139 

104.  Cleaned  and  not  cleaned  yarns  .....     140 

105.  Gassing  frame  ........     140 

106.  Gassing  and  cleaning  machine  .             .             .             .             .     141 

107.  Cleaning  frame  .......     142 

108.  Bobbin  reel      .  .             .             .             .             .             .             .143 

109.  Yarn  washing  .  .             .             .             .             .             .             .144 

110.  Improved  yarn  preparing  machine       .  .             .             .             .145 

111.  Derby  doubler  (section)  .             .             .             .             .             .148 

112.  Derby  doubler  .  .             .                          .             .             .             .149 

113.  Combing  (section)         .  .             .             .             .             .             .150 

114.  Improved  combing  machine  (Heilmann  system)          .  .             .     151 

115.  Garnetting  machine     .  .             .             .             .             .             .151 

116.  Mule  spinning .  .             .             .             .             .             .             .152 

117.  Diagram  of  all  processes  ......     153 


GLOSSARY 

/  • 


Have. — The  united  brins  or  strands  spun  by  the  silkworm. 

Eookboard. — Two  thin  boards  of  wood  hinged  together  like  a  book  to  hold  a 

strip  of  silk  whilst  undergoing  the  dressing  operation. 
Books. — A  certain  number  of  heads  or  hanks  of  raw  silk  bound  together  by 

bands  in  the  form  of  an  oblong  book.     Twelve  books  make  a  bale  of  raw 

silk. 

Erin. — The  two  strands  emitted  by  the  worm  when  spinning  its  cocoon. 
Carrier. — Small  rollers  acting  as  supports  to  rovings  between  back  and  front 

rollers  of  drawing  machinery,  roving  frames,  and  spinning  frames. 
Chops. — The  qualities  or  names  under  which  raw  and  waste  silk  is  sold. 
Cleaner  waste. — The  waste  made  during  the  cleansing  of  wound  nett  silk  from 

foul  pieces  and  "  gouty  "  places. 
Cocoon. — The  silken  covering  of  the  pupre.     A  double  cocoon  indicates  that  two 

worms  have  spun  side  by  side,  whilst  a  pierced  cocoon  means  that  the 

moth  has  emerged  or  "pierced"  the  cocoon. 
Degumming. — The  operations  of  freeing,  wholly  or  in  part,  the  silk  thread  from 

its  covering  of  sericin  or  gum. 

Deniering. — The  dividing  of  reeled  nett  silk  into  counts  or  sizes. 
Discharging. — The  operations  necessary  to  boil  silk  waste  and  silk  yarn  free 

from  gum. 
Draft. — The  drawing  out  of  one  or  more  ends  of  sliver  or  roving  into  a  thinner 

end. 
Drafts. — The  name  given  to  dressed  silk,  the  term  "first  draft"  denoting  the 

longest  length  of  fibre  possible  to  obtain  out  of  any  given  quality  of  waste, 

the  second  draft  being  the  second  longest  length  of  fibre,  and  so  on.      The 

lengths  are  usually  denoted  as  follows  : — 

Long  drafts.  Shorts. 

I     I    I    ,1   I  -"-  ,„,  |  •*  , 

method  }l8tdrafts'  2nd  drafts-  3rd  drafts.  4th  drafts.  5th  drafts.  6th  drafts.  7th  drafts, 
method}        ABC  1st  drafts.  2nd  drafts.  3rd  drafts.  4th  drafts. 

Drawing. — The  preparation  of  dressed  silk  previous  to  spinning — that  is,  all 

the  processes  after  dressing,  carding,  combing,  up  to  the  spinning  frame. 
Dressing. — The  separation  of  the  different  lengths  of  fibre. 
Fibroin. — The  pure  silk  thread  spun  by  the  worm. 


xiv  GLOSSARY 

Gouty. — A  thread  having  on  it  thick,  rough  places. 

Graine. — The  egg  of  the  silk  moth. 

Gum. — The  hard  gum-like  covering  of  the  silk  thread  (fibroin).  It  is  also 
called  "  sericin  "  and  "bast." 

Hank. — A  skein  of  thread  of  a  fixed  length. 

Long  spun. — A  term  used  to  indicate  that  the  yarn  spun  from  silk  waste  is 
spun  from  silk  which  has  not  been  "cut"  after  dressing,  and  in  contra- 
distinction to  short  spun,  which  used  to  imply  that  the  dressed  silk  was 
cut  into  short  lengths  prior  to  carding,  drawing,  and  spinning,  but  is 
now  often  applied  to  waste  silk  yarn  of  short  fibres  which  has  been 
carded. 

Nett  silk. — Sometimes  spelt  "  neat  silk."  A  term  used  in  contradistinction  to 
"spun  silk,"  really  being  a  name  applied  to  all  silks  produced  by  the 
.  silk  throwster. 

No-throw. — A  thread  composed  of  filaments  of  raw  silk  wound  together  with 
a  very  small  amount  of  twist. 

Noil.— The  short  silk  which  has  been  separated  from  the  long  fibres  in  the 
dressing  operations,  and  also  the  short  silk  combed  out  of  the  noil  from 
the  dressing  frame  ;  the  noil  from  the  last-named  machine  being  called 
"long  noil,"  and  the  noil  from  the  comb  the  "  exhaust  noil." 

Organzine. — Nett  silk  used  as  warp. 

Ratch. — The  distance  between  back  and  front  rollers  in  any  drawing  or 
spinning  machine. 

Raw  silk. — The  thread  produced  by  cocoon  reeler  and  sold  in  form  of  skeins, 
each  thread  composed  of  a  number  of  filaments. 

Rawy  thread. — A  thread  showing  thin  places.  In  raw  silk  this  is  caused  by 
bad  reeling,  in  spun  silk  by  uneven  drawing,  or  too  much  draft  in  the 
spinning. 

Schappe. — Refers  to  a  spun  yarn  which  has  been  spun  from  waste  which  has 
not  been  fully  discharged  or  degummed. 

Scha2Jping. — The  fermentation  of  silk  waste  necessary  to  remove  a  pre- 
determined percentage  of  gum  or  bast  (sericin)  from  the  silk  fibre. 

Scroop. — The  rustling  sound  given  out  by  silk  yarns  and  fabrics,  and  which 
is  caused  by  such  yarns  or  materials  having  been  passed  through  an  acid 
bath. 

Sericin. — The  "  soluble  by  water  "  portion  of  the  fibre  spun  by  the  silkworm. 
See  Gum. 

Short  spinning.—  The  processes  necessary  to  spin  yarn  made  from  fibres  of  silk 
which  have  been  cut  into  short  lengths.  The  term  is  applied  also  to 
yarn  spun  from  short  fibres  of  silk,  which,  preparatory  to  spinning,  have 
been  carded  and  drawn  on  rotary  or  roller  drawing  frames. 

Singles. — Raw  silk  which  has  received  a  slight  twist  in  the  spinning  frame,  if 
the  yarn  is  required  for  weft  purposes,  and  a  hard  twist  if  required  for  warp 
purposes. 

Sliver. — The  ribbon-like  silk,  delivered  by  any  drawing  frame,  without  any 
twist  in  it. 

Slubbing. — An  attenuated  sliver,  but  delivered  on  to  a  bobbin  and  with  twist 
in,  thus  making  a  soft  thick  thread  of  silk.  * 


GLOSSARY  xv 

Spinning. — The  operation  necessary  to  twist  together  fibres  or  threads  of  nett 
silk,  or  the  act  of  putting  twist  into  a  thread  on  a  spinning  mill  in  silk 
throwing.  In  waste  spinning  and  the  spinning  of  all  textile  fibres,  except 
nett  silk,  this  term  means  the  operation  of  drawing  or  drafting  out  a  pre- 
determined length  of  yarn  from  a  roving,  and  on  the  same  machine 
putting  twist  into  the  attenuated  end  or  thread. 

Spun  silk. — A  yarn  composed  of  fibres  of  silk,  which  fibres  have  been  cut  or 
dressed  into  lengths  to  enable  it  to  be  spun. 

Throwing. — The  operations  necessary  to  convert  raw  silk  into  any  desired 
size  or  count  suitable  for  manufacturing. 

Thrown  silk. — A  yarn  composed  of  fibres  of  silk,  each  fibre  or  filament  being 
the  longest  length  possible  to  obtain  from  a  cocoon,  and  such  fibres  of 
reeled  silk  having  been  "  thrown,"  meaning  wound  together  and  twist 
put  on  the  thread  in  a  silk-throwing  establishment. 

Tram. — Xett  silk  used  as  weft. 

Twist. — The  number  of  turns  per  inch  in  any  thread. 

Waste  silk. — Raw  silk  which  will  not  reel  and  waste  made  in  the  various 
operations  of  silk  throwing.  Really  tangled  messes  of  silk  which  have  to 
be  cut  or  dressed  into  lengths  before  they  can  be  spun.  See  Spun  silk.. 

Winder  waste. — The  waste  made  during  process  of  winding  raw  silk  on  to  a 
bobbin.  Known  also  as  "fine  waste,"  because  it  is  usually  a  fine  thin 
place  which  will  not  bear  the  tension  of  winding,  and  has  therefore  to  be 
taken  out  by  the  winding  frame  attendant. 


SILK    THROWING 
AND    WASTE    SILK    SPINNING 

INTRODUCTION 

ALTHOUGH  much  information  is  obtainable  in  this  country  regarding 
the  weaving  of  silk  goods,  very  little  seems  to  be  understood  about  the 
earlier  processes  of  silk  working.  The  terms  raw,  waste,  thrown, 
spun,  or  schappe  silk  are  very  vague  even  to  the  ordinary  manu- 
facturer, though  he  may  use  silk  in  conjunction  with  his  cotton  or 
worsted  goods,  and  by  others  the  terms  are  still  less  understood.  The 
English  silk  industry  has  long  been  in  a  declining  condition,  although 
anyone  looking  in  the  principal  drapers'  windows  cannot  but  be 
impressed  by  the  growing  popularity  of  the  fibre.  It  is  lamentable  to 
have  to  admit  that  instead  of  progressing,  as  is  the  case  with  most  of  our 
other  textile  fabrics,  silk  has  become  less  and  less  an  English  industry, 
and  unless  something  is  done,  and  done  quickly,  there  appears  the 
chance  of  it  being  entirely  overshadowed  by  continental  competitors. 
A  few  years  ago  silk  manufacturing  was  a  most  profitable  industry  in 
this  country ;  but  unfortunately,  when  import  tariffs  were  removed 
and  foreign  competition  began  to  be  felt,  there  was  a  singular  lack  of 
energy  displayed,  and  little  attempt  was  made  to  keep  abreast  of  the 
times.  No  trade  has  suffered  more  from  conservatism;  machines 
have  not  been  modernised,  and  many  in  use  at  the  present  time  have 
been  in  existence  for  a  generation.  Some  manufacturers  are  still 
clamouring  for  protection  as  the  only  means  of  saving  the  industry, 
although  the  possibility  of  combating  foreign  competition  is  demon- 
strated by  the  very  few  energetic  firms  who  have  proved  themselves 
capable  of  competing  against  all  comers  in  the  open  market. 

Of  late  years  some  cotton  and  worsted  manufacturers  have  turned 
their  attention  to  silk,  and  instead  of  looking  to  Macclesfield  arid 
Spitalfields  as  the  centres  of  the  British  silk  industry,  we  now  turn  to 
Bradford  and  district,  or  to  Glasgow,  whilst  Manchester  and  the 


2         SiLK  THROWING  AND   WASTE   SPINNING 

neighbouring  East  Lancashire  towns  get  through  a  fair  amount  of 
spun  silk  for  shirtings,  zephyrs,  striped  goods,  etc.  ;  and  although 
there  probably  never  were  fewer  who  could  strictly  call  themselves 
"  silk  manufacturers,"  it  is  likely  there  never  were  more  users  of  silk, 
even  in  the  palmy  days  of 'the  trade.  This  new  life  tends  to  bring  the 
trade  into  line  with  other  textile  industries,  and  as  cotton  and  worsted 
manufacturers  find  there  are  no  great  difficulties  in  the  manipulation 
of  silk,  the  number  is  likely  to  increase  rather  than  diminish. 

Of  the  two  branches,  spinning  and  throwing,  the  former,  as 
applied  to  the  treatment  and  preparation  of  so-called  waste  silk,  is  by 
far  the  more  important  in  this  country,  for  while  the  latter  has  been  a 
declining  trade  for  the  last  fifteen  years  or  more,  there  is  to-day  in 
England  waste  silk  machinery  capable  of  turning  out  more  spun  silk 
yarn  than  ever  before ;  so  in  the  gloomy  picture  of  the  decline  of  the 
silk  trade  it  is  pleasant  to  be  able  to  record  one  branch  which  has 
managed  to  hold  its  own.  Throwing,  as  one  of  the  three  distinct 
sections  into  which  the  English  silk  industry  is  divided, — namely, 
throwing,  spinning,  and  manufacturing, — seems  to  be  the  branch  in 
which  we,  as  a  nation,  have  failed  altogether  to  keep  pace  with  con- 
tinental throwsters.  Improvements  in  machinery  can  be  traced  to 
American  and  continental  sources,  but  they  have  not  been  generally 
adopted  by  English  throwsters. 

There  is  a  large  field  open  for  our  manufacturers,  if  they  could  and 
would  cater  better  for  the  home  market.  At  one  time  silk  was  looked 
upon  as  a  luxury,  but  now,  owing  principally  to  the  fact  that  a  use 
has  been  found  for  waste  silk  which  formerly  was  of  little  commercial 
value,  its  use  as  an  article  of  adornment  is  practically  universal. 
When  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  for  every  1  Ib.  of  raw  silk  produced 
there  is  about  1 J  Ib.  of  unreelable  silk  remaining,  and  which,  prior  to 
the  invention  of  silk  spinning,  was  almost  valueless,  it  will  be  at  once 
recognised  that  there  was  a  great  possibility  before  an  industry  which 
would  be  able  to  use  up  this  vast  accumulation  of  waste.  Hitherto  no 
work  has  been  written  showing  the  whole  history  of  the  silk  from 
worm  to  thread,  and  only  very  brief  and  erroneous  references  can  be 
found  on  the  spinning  of  silk  waste.  A  great  deal  of  the  machinery 
used  is  common  to  other  spinning  industries,  and  where  that  is  the 
case  it  has  not  been  deemed  necessary  to  go  into  any  great  detail. 
On  the  other  hand,  some  processes  are  peculiar  to  silk,  and  these  have 
been  fully  described.  In  no  case  has  it  been  thought  advisable  to 
enter  into  any  machinery  calculations,  such  as  the  method  of  finding 
the  draft  wheels,  change  wheels,  etc.,  all  of  which  calculations  can  be 
got  from  machinists,  and  have  been  published  in  many  text-books. 


CHAPTEK   I 

THE  SILKWORM — EGG-HATCHING 

THE  SILKWORM. — Almost  every  country  seems  to  have  some  kind  of 
silk-producing  insect,  but  we  generally  turn  to  China,  Japan,  Italy, 
and  Southern  France  as  the  only  countries  where  the  silkworm — 
which  is  the  chief  producer  of  industrial  silk — can  be  successfully 
reared.  This  is  a  mistake,  for  in  our  own  country,  without  the  aid  of 
artificial  means,  silkworms  have  been  reared  from  the  egg.  Splendid 
specimens  of  moths  have  been  obtained,  and  experts  who  have  studied 
the  subject,  and  who  have  for  years  cultivated  the  silkworm,  are  of 
opinion  that  quite  as  good  silk  can  be  produced  here  as  in  any  other 
country.  The  reason  why  this  is  not  an  English  industry  is  that 
labour  is  too  expensive  as  compared  with  native  labour  in  China  and 
Japan  and  that  of  the  peasants  in  France  and  Italy.  It  has,  however, 
been  proved  beyond  a  doubt  that  the  silkworm  can  be  reared  here  just 
as  prolifically  as  on  the  Continent,  and  there  are  worms  in  England 
to-day  which  have  been  bred  from  stock,  introduced  very  many  years 
ago,  and  still  the  moths  show  no  signs  of  degenerating  nor  does  the 
silk  appear  to  have  become  any  worse.  The  eggs,  or  "graine,"  of  the 
silk  moth  vary  in  size,  according  to  the  family  to  which  they  belong, 
but  generally  speaking  they  are  about  the  size  of  a  pin  head,  and  so 
hard  that  a  person  might  stand  on  them  without  breaking  them.  If 
stored  in  a  cold  place  the  eggs  can  be  kept  for  almost  any  length  of 
time,  but  if  put  in  a  fairly  warm  room  the  eggs  can  be  hatched  pretty 
quickly,  although  it  is  always  well  not  to  force  them  too  much.  Care 
should  be  taken  that  the  worms  do  not  appear  before  the  mulberry  is 
in  leaf,  or  whatever  food  it  may  be  intended  to  feed  them  on  is  quite 
ready. 

After  hatching,  the  worm  begins  at  once  to  feed,  and  is  most 
voracious,  doing  nothing  but  eat  for  from  three  to  five  weeks,  when  it 
is  full  grown,  having  in  the  meantime  cast  its  skin  no  less  than  three 
or  four  times. 

Spinning  cocoon. — Fig.  1  shows  the  worm  commencing  to  spin  its 
cocoon,  which  it  starts  when  full  grown.  The  thread,  which  is 
secreted  in  two  glands  near  the  head,  comes  from  the  worm's  under- 
lip  in  two  strands,  or  brins,  which  unite,  and  are  then  termed 


4  RAW   SILK 

"have."  Some  species  attach  themselves  to  the  twig  of  a  tree  (as 
will  be  seen  from  the  illustration)  before  commencing  to  spin,  whilst 
other  kinds  secrete  themselves  between  two  or  three  leaves,  and  then 
envelop  themselves  in  a  cocoon  of  silk. 

When  the  cocoon  stage  is  reached,  the  worm  is  in  what  is  called 
the  pupa,  or  chrysalides  state,  and  thus  it  remains  through  the  winter. 
At  the  approach  of  the  warm  weather  it  gives  out  a  kind  of  moisture 
to  soften  the  silk  at  one  end  of  the  cocoon,  then  begins  eating  or 
pushing  its  way  out,  and  soon  what  appeared  months  before  an  ugly- 
looking  caterpillar  bursts  forth  a  winged  creation — a  beautiful  moth, 
as  great  a  transformation  as  man  can  imagine.  It  is  only  when  the 


FIG.  1. — Silkworm. 

moth  is  required  for  breeding  purposes  or  preserving  as  a  specimen 
that  it  is  allowed  to  pierce  the  cocoon,  as  immediately  the  silk  is  thus 
broken  it  is  unreelable,  and  the  pierced  cocoons  are  only  fit  for  waste- 
spinning  purposes. 

Sericin — Fibroin. — As  the  fluid  thread  is  produced  by  the  silk- 
worm it  is  coated  with  a  kind  of  varnish  known  as  "gum"  or 
"sericin,"  which  becomes  hard  in  a  few  days  after  the  worm  has 
completed  its  cocoon.  This  gum  will  dissolve  in  water,  but  the 
thread  or  "  fibroin  "  itself  is  insoluble  in  water,  although  the  chemical 
composition  of  each  is  very  similar,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  following 
analysis.  The  percentages  are  only  given  approximately  : — 


THE   SILKWORM— EGG   HATCHING 


Fibroin. 
49  per  cent. 


Carbon 
Hydrogen 
Nitrogen 
Oxygen 


Sericin. 
424  per  cent. 

6^  „ 
16*  „ 
35 


f  It  is  also  interesting  to  compare  the  composition  of  the   worm 
itself  with  that  of  the  mulberry  leaf — 

Dried  Worms.  Leaves. 

48  per  cent.                                Carbon     ...  44  per  cent. 

Hydrogen          .         .  6         ,, 

Nitrogen  .         .         .  3         ,, 

Oxygen     .         .         .  35 

Mineral  matter          ..  12 


7 

10 
26 


m 

\/  •> 
JP 


o 


m 

Jap 


D 


FIG.  2. — Bombyx  mori,  larvae,  cocoon,  moth. 

Varieties  of  moth. — There  are  hundreds  of  different  varieties  of 
silk  moths,  family  Bombycidce,  but  the  best  known  and  most  prolific  is 
the  genus  Bombyx,  which  includes  BomJjyx  mori,  the  typical  Chinese 
silk  moth,  which  produces  the  best  silks  of  China,  Italy,  and  France. 
In  Fig.  2  is  shown  the  worm  or  larvae  A,  the  cocoon  B,  the  male  moth 
C,  and  the  female  moth  D,  of  the  Eomhyy  mori.  As  will  be  seen 
from  these,  the  cocoon  is  very  small — about  the  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg 
— but  it  is  very  compact.  All  cocoons  produced  by  the  Bombyx  are 
reelable,  and  are  termed  closed  cocoons — i.e.  the  thread  covers  the 


6  RAW   SILK 

ends  of  the  cocoon  without  any  apparent  break,  whereas  some  species 
produce  an  open  cocoon — i.e.  a  cocoon  with  what  appears  an  opening 
in  the  outer  covering  of  silk  at  the  end,  from  which  the  moth  would 
emerge.  Some,  but  not  all,  of  the  so-called  opened  cocoons  are 
reelable. 

The  composition  of  the  Bombyx  mori  silk  is  as  follows  : — 

Water      .         .         .         .         •.         .         .  12 '50  per  cent. 
Fatty  and  resinous  .         .         .         .         .  0'70        ,, 

Mineral 1-12 

Gum 22-58 

Fibroin 63 '10         ,, 

The  food  of  this  particular  worm  is  the  leaf  of  the  white  mulberry 
tree  (Morus  alba),  and  the  fear  of  frosts  in  the  early  spring  on  the 
Continent  is  not  so  much  on  account  of  the  damage  it  will  do  to  the 
worms  as  the  fear  lest  it  will  nip  the  budding  mulberry  trees,  and  so 
delay  the  foliage  that  the  eggs  may  be  hatched  before  there  is  food  for 
the  young  worms.  The  frost  scare  is  often  made  use  of  in  the  early 
part  of  spring  by  speculators  endeavouring  to  run  up  prices  of  raw 
silks.  They  give  out,  that  owing  to  frost  the  mulberry  will  be 
delayed,  and  the  young  worms,  having  no  food,  will  die,  and  hence 
there  will  be  a  scarcity  of  silk.  The  mulberry  is  a  rare  tree  in  this 
country,  and  lettuce  and  dandelion  have  been  found  good  substitutes 
on  which  to  feed  the  worm,  but  there  is  nothing  to  equal  the  natural 
food  of  the  silkworm. 

The  next  best-known  group  of  silkworms  is  the  tussah  (tasar, 
tussar,  tussore),  of  which  the  Antherea  mylitta  is  the  principal. 
Fig.  3  shows  the  cocoon  at  A,  the  male  moth  at  B,  and  the  female  at 
C.  (Figs.  2,  3,  4,  and  5  are  reduced  to  half  the  actual  linear  size  of 
the  insect,  etc.) 

The  Mylitta  spins  a  much  larger  cocoon,  and  is  in  every  respect  a 
larger  worm  than  the  Bombyx.  It  thrives  in  India  and  China,  and 
although  there  is  a  considerable  difference  in  the  texture  of  the  China 
tussah  and  the  Indian  variety,  the  latter  having  a  coarser  fibre,  both 
silks  are  the  product  of  the  same  worm.  For  waste-spinning  purposes 
the  China  tussah  is  preferred  on  account  of  its  finer  thread,  but 
throwsters  hold  to  the  Indian  as  being  cleaner  and  firmer.  Although 
the  Mylitta  is  really  the  only  variety  of  the  Antherea  family  which 
produces  real  tussah,  there  are  a  score  which  produce  similar  silk,  all 
belonging  to  the  same  genus  of  insect.  Whilst  the  Bombyx  mori 
produces  the  finest  silk,  the  fibres  measuring  from  y^1^  to  y^o^  in. 
diameter,  the  Antherea  mylitta  produces  the  coarsest  silk,  which  varies 
in  diameter  from  y^o^  to  T^¥  in.  diameter. 

The  colour  of  the  Bombyx  mori  silk  varies  from  pure  white  to 
creams,  and  yellows  to  rich  orange ;  but  after  boiling  or  discharging,  the 
darkest  shade  will  come  out  cream ;  whereas  the  tussah  which  varies 


THE   SILKWORM — EGG   HATCHING 


from  light  cream  to  dark  red-brown,  will  not  give  up  its  colour  so 
easily  ,  and  it  is  only  by  the  help  of  peroxides,  or  otherwise  chemically 
treating  it,  that  light  shades  can  be  obtained.  Comparatively  speak- 


FIG.  3. — AntJierea  mylitta,  cocoon,  moth. 

ing,  very  little  of  the  so-called  tussah  waste  which  conies  to  this 
market  is  really  tussah ;  at  least,  it  is  not  the  product  of  the  Mylitta, 
but  of  the  many  wild  varieties  which  abound  in  China  and  India.  A 


8  RAW   SILK 

great  producer  of  what  is  called  the  Indian  tussah  is  the  species 


FIG.  4. — -Yama-mai,  larvae,  cocoon,  moth. 

known  as  Assam  of  the  Antherea  family,  known  l>y  the  natives  as 
Muya.     The  Antherea  royli,  which  is  bred  in  the  Himalayas  at  a 


THE   SILKWORM — EGG   HATCHING  9 

great  elevation,  produces  one  of  the  best  Indian  tussahs.  Doubtless 
the  difference  in  texture  between  the  Indian  and  China  tussah,  the 
product  of  the  Mylitta,  is  due  partly  to  climatic  influences  and  partly 
to  the  difference  in  food.  The  leaf  of  the  oak  is  the  best-known  food 
for  this  class  of  worm,  but  there  are  a  score  of  different  varieties  of 
leaves  on  which  the  worm  thrives.  Another  genus  belonging  to  the 
Antfierea  family,  and  one  which  is  valued  very  much  in  Japan,  is  the 
Yama  mai.  Fig.  4  shows  the  worm  A,  the  cocoon  B,  the  male  moth 
C,  and  the  female  moth  D.  It  is  an  oak-feeding  variety,  and  spins  a 
quality  of  silk  which  is  much  appreciated  on  account  of  its  strength, 
but  the  colour  is  not  so  good  as  that  of  the  silk  of  the  Bombyx  mori, 
the  cocoon  having  a  greenish  appearance.  The  Yama  mai  can  be 
reared  very  well  in  England,  and  out  of  fifty  eggs  sent  to  an  expert  in 
the  first  year  of  introduction  to  this  country,  forty-nine  were  hatched ; 
the  worms  reared,  spun  their  cocoons,  forty-nine  perfect  specimens  of 
moths  emerged,  and  their  progeny  still  exist. 

The  Pernyi  is  another  variety  of  the  Antherea  group  which  can 
easily  be  reared  in  this  country.  It  produces  a  good  silk,  very 
similar  to  the  Mori.  It  is  an  oak-feeding  worm  and  is  indigenous  to 
North  China,  where  of  late  years  much  attention  has  been  paid  to  the 
rearing  of  this  variety  for  commerce. 

Of  the  Citernia  family  the  Attacus  Cynthia  is  shown  in  Fig.  5 — 
the  worm  at  A,  the  cocoon  at  B,  the  male  moth  at  C,  and  the  female 
moth  at  D.  It  also  is  a  valuable  silk  producer,  and  thrives  in  North 
China  and  Japan,  feeding  on  the  Arlanthus  glandulosa,  which  is 
very  similar  to  our  ash.  It  produces  a  long  greyish  cocoon.  The 
Ricini  is  the  Cynthia  introduced  into  India,  where  it  feeds  on  the 
castor-oil  plant  and  produces  the  silk  known  as  Bengals. 

Wild  ivorms. — As  reference  has  occasionally  been  made  to  wild 
silkworms,  it  is  well  to  here  state  that  the  description  applies  to 
those  varieties  which  are  hatched  out  in  the  open  without  any 
attempt  being  made  to  cultivate  them  or  keep  them  under  cover, 
except  perhaps  in  a  very  primitive  way.  Many  of  the  cocoons  of  the 
wild  worms  are  probably  collected  and  the  pupa  killed  to  prevent 
the  moth  developing,  and  such  cocoons  will  be  reeled ;  but  naturally 
the  silk  is  not  so  good  as  that  of  the  worm  which  has  been  care- 
fully tended  and  shielded  from  climatic  changes  of  temperature.  In 
many  of  these  wild  species  the  moths  are  allowed  to  burst  from  the 
cocoons,  thus  rendering  them  useless  for  reeling  purposes.  They  are  ex- 
ported to  Europe  as  "  pierced  cocoons,"  suitable  only  for  waste-spinning 
purposes.  Pierced  cocoons  are  far  more  preferable  to  the  silk  waste 
spinner  than  perfect  cocoons  with  the  lifeless  chrysalis  inside,  as  in 
the  latter  case  it  is  a  troublesome  process  to  separate  the  wormy 
matter  from  the  silk,  to  say  nothing  of  the  extra  weight  of  useless 
matter  purchased.  There  are  many  wild  varieties  of  silkworms  in 
China  and  Japan. 


IO 


RAW   SILK 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Bornbyx  mori  and  other  valuable  pro- 


FIG.  5. — Attacus  Cynthia,  larvae,  cocoon,  moth. 

ducers  of  silk  are  most  carefully  and  elaborately  tended,  either  by 
the  peasantry  of  the  various  countries  in    their   own  homes,  or  by- 


THE   SILKWORM — EGG   HATCHING  u 

large  producers  in  establishments  erected  for  the  purpose,  and 
employing  numbers  of  attendants.  The  silk  industry  of  the  East  is 
divided  into  two  sections — namely,  (1)  the  rearing  of  the  worms, 
and  (2)  the  reeling  of  the  cocoons.  To  give  some  idea  of  the 
amount  of  tending  which  must  be  necessary  in  rearing  the  domesticated 
worms,  it  is  calculated  that  the  worms  hatched  from  1  oz.  of  "  graine  "  v 
eat  during  the  thirty-one  days  which  elapse  from  the  day  the  eggs  x 
are  hatched  to  the  day  when  they  commence  spinning  something 
like  1590  Ib.  of  leaves.  After  the  worms  in  the  rearing  establish- 
ments have  completed  spinning,  the  cocoons  are  carefully  examined 
and  sorted ;  the  most  perfect  are  set  aside  for  breeding  purposes,  and 
the  remainder  are  baked  or  steamed  in  order  to  destroy  the  life  of 
the  pupae.  The  average  production  of  1  oz.  of  eggs  is  from  87 
to  88  Ib.  of  cocoons — that  is,  of  course,  unpierced  cocoons — 
which  includes  the  weight  of  the  pupae  or  chrysalis.  The  cocoons 
set  aside  for  reeling  are  next  sorted  into  grades — good,  bad,  and 
indifferent. 


CHAPTER    II 

COCOON  REELING  AND  QUALITIES  OF  SILK 

COCOON  KEELING. — Reeling  is  a  very  simple  but  tedious  process, 
and,  on  account  of  the  silk  fibre  being  so  very  fine,  it  takes  a  long 
time  to  reel  1  Ib.  of  silk.  One  authority  has  stated  that  it  takes 
from  2000  to  2500  silkworms  to  produce  1  Ib.  of  silk.  There  is 
no  very  elaborate  or  expensive  machinery  required.  Fig.  6  represents 
a  reeling  machine,  whose  parts  are  as  follows : — A,  the  basin  into 
which  the  cocoons  B  are  placed ;  C,  a  small  circular  plate  through 


FIG.  6. — Cocoon  reeling  machine. 

\ 

which  the  cocoon  ends  are  passed  to  gather  them  into  one  end,  which 
is  conveyed  over  the  small  wheel  D,  then  under  the  small  wheel  E, 
to  the  point  F,  where  the  thread  is  twisted  round  itself  to  weld  the 
cocoon  ends  together  before  it  passes  on  to  the  swift  G. 

The  water  in  the  basin  is  kept  at  a  uniform  temperature  by  means 
of  steam.  Into  this  Avater  a  number  of  cocoons  are  placed,  and  the 
operator  whisks  them  about  with  a  small  stick  or  bunch  of  twigs 
until  the  natural  gum  with  which  the  fibre  is  covered  softens,  and  so 

12 


COCOON   REELING  AND   QUALITIES   OF   SILK      13 

allows  the  thread  to  adhere  to  the  stick,  when  the  outer  coating  of 
the  cocoon,  being  coarse  and  uneven,  is  stripped  off  and  put  aside  as 
waste,  for  the  spinner  of  waste  silk  yarns.  After  this  coating  has 
been  removed  the  reeler  finds  the  end  of  the  true  or  reelable  thread, 
when  four,  five,  or  more  of  such  ends  are  taken  up  and  passed 
through  the  guide  C  to  make  one  thread.  The  number  of  ends 
amalgamated  varies  according  to  the  quality  of  the  silk  and  the  size 
or  count  required.  Only  the  middle  portion  of  a.  cocoon  is  reeled ; 
the  outer  coating  first  spun  by  the  worm  is  too  coarse  and  uneven, 
the  inner  portion  or  last  part  spun  by  the  worm  is  too  fine,  and 
hardly  strong  enough  to  bear  even  the  weight  of  the  cocoon.  This 
unevenness  in  thread,  varying  from  coarse  to  fine  according  as  the 
silk  is  near  the  outside  or  near  the  inside  of  the  cocoon,  makes  it 
necessary  that  great  care  be  exercised  by  the  reeler  in  running  the 
different  threads  together  to  maintain  the  resulting  thread  of  uniform 
size;  and,  as  pn  this  uniformity  the  value  of  the  raw  silk  greatly 
depends,  it  will  be  seen  that  some  skill  and  judgment  is  essential 
to  a  good  reeler,  it  being  necessary  at  times  to  vary  the  number 
of  filaments. 

Tsatlee  reel. — In  China  silks  there  are  three  different  reelings — 
namely,  tsatlee  reel,  re-reeled  tsatlees,  and  filature  reels.  The  tsatlee  reel 
is  the  commonest  and  oldest  form  in  which  the  China  silks  come  over 
from  the  East,  but  is  fast  falling  out  of  favour,  re-reels  and  filatures 
taking  its  place.  The  reeling  machine  is  a  very  primitive  affair,  and, 
generally  speaking,  not  much  care  is  taken  by  the  reelers  to  see  that 
the  number  of  filaments  running  together  to  make  one  thread  is  kept 
the  same.  Sometimes  there  may  be  ten  or  eleven  running  together 
to  start  with,  but  as  the  cocoons  fall,  off  or  the  ends  break  they  are 
not  replaced  immediately.  In  fact,  judging  from  the  silk  at  times, 
it  would  appear  that  they  are  sometimes  let  run  down  until  there  are 
only  about  two  running  together.  Then  the  correct  number  of 
cocoons  or  threads  are  pieced  up  and  the  reeling  restarted ;  and  so 
the  process  goes  on,  the  thread  naturally  varying  in  thickness 
according  to  the  number  of  filaments  or  cocoons  kept  up.  In  the 
tsatlee  reel  there  is  no  attempt  to  make  the  hanks  or  skeins  one  even 
continuous  thread,  or  uniform  in  length,  and  many  times  where  the 
piecings  of  broken  ends  have  been  made  there  are  faulty  places  which 
were  better  left  undone.  The  tsatlee  reels  come  over  to  Europe  in 
the  form  of  "books,"  twelve  of  which  make  up  a  bale  of  from  100  to 
104  Ib.  These  books  are  made  up  of  twelve  "mosses,"  which  are 
again  divisible  into  "  slips."  The  length  and  size  of  these  slips  vary 
according  to  the  quality  of  the  silk.  The  books  are  bound 
together  by  bands  of  raw  silk,  which  are  generally  very  coarse  and 
unsuitable  for  throwing.  The  ends  of  the  books  are  covered  by  a 
kind  of  flossy  silk,  called  "caps,"  to  keep  them  clean.  These  silk 
caps  are  used  for  waste-spinning  purposes. 


RAW   SILK 


The  different  qualities  of  tsatlees  are  divided  into  grades  from 
No.  2%  to  5f,  but  there  is  no  general  classification  under  these 
grades,  different  shippers  styling  them  according  to  their  own 
recognised  standard.  The  different  qualities  are  known  under  a 
"  chop  "  mark.  Of  the  best-known  qualities  the  following  might  be 
taken  as  standards  for  the  grades  : — 


No.  1 


No.  1. 
2. 


1. 
34. 

4. 
2. 


Bluck  Lion. 
Black  Lion. 
Black  Lion. 
Buffalo. 
Black  Lion. 
Black  Lion. 
Buffalo. 


5| 

(best) 


No. 


fNo.  1.   Almond  Flower. 

Gold  Kilin. 
-I  Blue  Phoenix  Lanfung. 

M.  Mandarin  Duck. 

us.s.s. 


Dollar. 


(m  a  r  - 
k  e  li- 
able) 


Green  Peacock  Seeling. 
No.  2.  Almond  Flowers. 
Triple  Pagodas. 
Choey  Kilins. 
Bamboo  No.  2. 
Mandarin  Duck  M.M. 
Kinfong  Gold  Pheasant. 
No.  ,2.  Beautiful  Woman. 


(X.  Running 
|  Red  Stork. 


Deer. 


III.  Train  Chop. 


,  A  ft*      JJUllctlU 

I  Red  Elephant. 
/  No.  3.  Red  Pagoda. 
'X  „    3.  Buffalo. 
/Blue  Elephant. 
\Bird  Fongling. 
/Yellow  Elephant. 
tNo.  3.  Mountain. 

(Green  Elephant. 
No.  4.   Mountain. 
Gold  Lion  Kintze. 
,,    5|     /No.  5.  Mountain, 
(good)  \Double  Silver  Elephant. 

Re-reels. — As  the  name  implies,  these  are  the  tsatlees  re-reeled 
by  the  natives  into  smaller  hanks,  each  of  which  is  made  up 
separately.  In  this  process  of  re-reeling  some  of  the  foul  threads  and 
bad  piecings  are  taken  out,  and  the  thread  is  subjected  to  a  cleaning 
process.  The  hanks  are  sorted,  and  the  fine  sizes  run  together,  as 
also  the  coarse  sizes,  and  this  is  the  reason  re-reels  are  so  much  more 
uniform  in  size  than  ordinary  tsatlees.  Each  skein  being  tied  up 
separately  and  the  hanks  being  so  much  straighter,  makes  them  less 
expensive  working  for  the  throwster,  and  does  not  need  the  same 
amount  of  soap  that  tsatlees  do  to  make  them  wind  easily.  Like 
tsatlees,  re-reels  are  also  divided  into  grades,  and  are  shipped  under 
a  chop  mark.  These  are — 


EXTRA. 

Buffalo  Extra. 
Pegasus  Extra. 
Black  Horse  Extra. 


No.  1. 

Buffalo  A. 
Pegasus  No.  1. 
Black  Horse  No.  1. 
Fan  Chop  Extra. 
Gold  Pheasant  No.  1. 


No.  2  BEST. 
Buffalo  B. 
Pegasus  No.  2. 
Black  Horse  No.  2. 
Chrysantheimim  No.  1. 
Gold  Flying  Dragon  No.  2. 
Gold  Pheasant  No.  2. 
Fan  Chop  No.  1 . 

No.  3  BEST. 
Pegasus  No.  3. 
Black  Horse  No.  3. 
Chrysanthemum  No.  2. 
Fan  Chop  No.  2. 
Gold  Pheasant  No.  3. 


COCOON   REELING  AND   QUALITIES   OF   SILK      15 


No.  4  BEST. 
Pegasus  No.  4. 
Black  Horse  No.  4. 
Chrysanthemum  No.  3. 

MARKET  No.  1. 
Flag  Chop  No.  1 . 
Cabbage  No.  1. 
Gold  Peony  Flower  No.  1. 

MARKET  No.  2. 
Flag  Chop  No.  2. 
Gold  Peony  Flower  No.  2. 


Cabbage  No.  2. 
Small  Buffalo  No.  1. 


MARKET  No.  3. 

Flag  Chop  No.  3. 
Gold  Peony  No.  3. 
Cabbage  No.  3. 
Small  'Buffalo  No.  2. 


MARKET  No.  4. 

Cabbage  No.  4. 
Small  Buffalo  No.  3. 


Steam  filatures. — These  are  the  finest  and  most  expensive  silks 
produced.  Only  good  silk  is  reeled  thus,  and  filatures  are  more  even 
and  reliable  for  size  than  either  re-reels  or  tsatlees.  Formerly  all 
silks  used  to  be  reeled  in  the  cottages  by  the  peasant  and  his 
family,  and  the  water  in  which  the  cocoons  were  steeped  preparatory 
to  reeling  was  kept  hot  by  a  fire  underneath  the  basin.  By  this 
means  of  obtaining  heat  it  is  impossible  to  keep  the  water  at  a 
uniform  temperature,  and  the  result  consequently  was  uncertain,  and 
bad  reeling  and  tangled  hanks  were  rather  the  rule  than  the 
exception.  To  overcome  this  difficulty,  and  with  the  general 
improvement  of  the  industry  and  greater  demand  for  silks  from 
Europe,  machines  were  adopted  and  the  water  heated  by  steam  as 
per  Fig.  6,  and  so  kept  at  one  temperature.  These  machines  are 
gathered  into  factories  called  "  steam  filatures,"  and  the  cocoons, 
which  have  either  been  spun  by  worms  bred  on  the  premises  or 
brought  from  up  country  by  the  peasantry,  are  reeled  under  skilled 
supervision.  In  these  "  steam  filatures  "  great  care  is  taken  to  keep 
the  thread  uniform  in  size  or  count  and  length  of  skein,  the  reeler 
being  attentive  to  replace  cocoons  which  have  broken  down,  and  so  to 
keep  the  number  of  filaments  comprising  the  thread  always  the  same. 

CHOP    MAEKS. — China    filatures    are    also    divided    into    grades 
according  to  chop,  the  best  known  being — 
EXTRA. 

Soyhm  Gold  Anchor  Extra. 


BEST  No.  1. 

Soylun  Silver  Anchor  No.  1. 
Keecheong  No.  1. 

No.  1. 

Soylun  Red  Anchor  No.  2. 
Keecheong  No.  2. 
Gold  Dragon  No.  1. 
Soy  chin  g  Gold  Eagle  No.  1. 

BEST  No.  2. 
Sans  Pareil  No.  2. 
Double  Gold  Dragon  No.  2. 


Tsuncheong  Gold  Double  Anchor 

No.  1. 

Excelsior  No.  2. 
Gold  Globe  No.  2. 


No.  3  BEST. 

Double  Anchor  No.  2. 

Excelsior  No.  2. 

Sans  Pareil  No.  3. 

Gold  Globe  No.  3. 

Double  Dragon  and  Flag  No.  2. 

No.  3. 

Double  Anchor  No.  3. 
Double  Dragon  and  Flag  No.  3. 


i6 


RAW   SILK 


Another  class  of  China  raw  silk,  much  in  request  for  silk  sew- 
ings and  other  purposes  for  which  coarse  threads  can  be  used  to 
advantage,  are  Hangchows  and  Kahings,  which  are  reeled  very  similar 
to  the  tsatlee,  being  made  up  in  books  of  9/12  mosses.  The  dia- 
meter of  the  reel  is,  however,  generally  larger  than  the  ordinary 
tsatlee,  and  in  consequence  needs  larger  swifts  in  winding.  Of  the 
Kahings  the  best-known  chops  are — 


WHITE  KAHINGS. 

EXTRA. 

Tsuky  Yuen  Kinling. 
Ching  Yung  Kinling. 

No.  1  BEST. 
Tsuky  Yuen  Fongling. 
Ching  Yung  Fongling. 
Gold  Lily  Flower  (Extra). 

No.  1. 

Gold  Lily  Flower  No.  1. 
Tsuky  Yuen  Sueling. 

No.  2. 
No.  2  Gold  Lily  Flower. 

No.  3. 
No.  3  Gold  Lily  Flower. 

No.  4. 
No.  4  Gold  Lily  Flower. 


GREEN  KAHINGS. 

EXTKA. 

Cicada  No.  1. 

No.  1  BEST. 
Mandarin  Duck  Extra. 

No.  1. 
M.  Mandarin  Duck. 

No.  2  BEST. 
White  Swan  No.  2. 
Green  Stork  Extra. 
Gold  Eagle  Extra. 

No.  2. 

M.  M.  Mandarin  Duck. 
Green  Stork  No.  1. 

No.  3  BEST. 
M.  M.  M.  Mandarin  Duck. 

No.  4. 
Green  Stork  No.  4. 


Of   the  Hangchows  the  best-known  qualities  are  shipped  under 
the  following  chop  marks  : — 


EXTRA. 

Best  No.  1  Lily  Flower. 
Best  No.  1  Pagoda. 

No.  1. 

No.  1  Lily  Flower. 
No.  1  Pagoda. 
No.  1  Blue  Lion. 
No.  1  Blue  Horse. 


No.  2. 

No.  2  Lily  Flower. 
No.  2  Pagoda. 
No.  2  Blue  Lion. 
No.  2  Blue  Horse. 

HANGCHOW  TAYSAAMS. 
Double  Horse  No.  1. 
Double  Horse  No.  2. 


The  different  chops,  named  previously  under  the  heads  of  Tsat- 
lees,  Re-reels,  Filatures,  Kahings,  and  Hangchows,  are  all  silks  shipped 
from  Shanghai,  rnd  are  the  silks  universally  known  as  "  Chinas." 

From  Canton  there  are  also  different  qualities  of  raw  silk  shipped, 
and  in  contradistinction  to  those  shipped  from  Shanghai  they  are 
known  as  "  Cantons."  Chinas  and  Cantons  are  two  distinct 
qualities  of  raw  silk.  The  most  striking  differences  noticeable,  even 
to  the  uninitiated,  are— first,  the  colour;  second,  the  texture  or  feel 


COCOON   REELING  AND   QUALITIES   OF   SILK      17 

of  the  -silk.  Chinas,  generally  speaking,  are  a  good  white  colour 
(although  there  are  a  few  varieties  yellow,  but  which  are  com- 
paratively little  known),  even  in  the  lower  grades.  Cantons,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  a  greenish  brown,  and  vary  very  considerably. 
China  silk  is  a  firm,  compact  thread;  Canton  silk  is  not  so  firm, 
and  works  "fluffy"  in  throwing.  These  two  defects  are  more 
noticeable  when  the  silk  has  been  discharged  of  its  natural  gum,  for 
no  amount  of  boiling — i.e.  degumming — will  give  the  Canton  the 
same  white  bottom  as  the  China.  Like  Chinas,  Cantons  are  shipped 
in  the  tsatlee,  re-reel,  and  filature  reels,  but  as  tsatlees  they  are  best 
known  as  No.  1,  No.  2,  No.  3,  and  No.  4  Cantons,  although  they 
have  different  chop  marks ;  but  not  so  much  importance  is  placed 
upon  these  chops  as  is  the  case  with  Chinas.  The  same  remarks 
apply  to  the  Canton  filatures  and  Canton  re-reels,  which  are  likewise 
divided  into  grades — extra  1's,  2's,  3's,  and  4's.  The  falling  off  in 
the  production  and  export  of  tsatlee  Cantons  is  more  pronounced 
than  with  China  tsatlees.  The  shipments  go  less  every  year,  more 
silk  being  filature-reeled  and  re-reeled  for  America  and  the  Con- 
tinent. 

Japan  raw  silk. — Practically  all  Japans  are  filatures  or  re-reels, 
and  the  bulk  of  the  silk  shipped  to  this  country  is  shipped  as  fila- 
tures, America  and  the  Continent  taking  a  fair  quantity  of  re-reels  as 
well.  The  re-reels  from  Japan  are  very  fair  for  cleanliness,  and 
fairly  even  in  thread. .  The  different  filatures  have  their  respective 
chop  marks,  some  of  which  are  very  well  known,  such  as  the 
"  Kamiesha  stags  "  and  the  "  Riojiokan,"  but,  generally  speaking, 
they  are  bought  and  sold  by  grade.  For  all  practical  purposes,  the 
following  represents  the  different  qualities  shipped  : — Extra  :  No.  1  ; 
Nos.  1,  1J;  No.  1£;  Nos.  1J,  2;  and  No.  2;  but  in  buying  "to 
arrive,"  the  throwster  or  manufacturer  generally  stipulates  the 
shipper,  or  shipper's  mark,  as  one  mark  of  Nos.  1,  1J  may  only  be 
equal  to  another  shipper's  No.  1J  or  1J,  2.  In  the  case  of  buying  on 
the  spot  from  samples,  the  shipper's  mark  is  not  so  important,  as  the 
silk  will  show  for  itself,  except  that  certain  shippers  are  well  known 
to  be  careful  in  their  selections  and  inspection.  Japan  silk  is  a  good, 
clean  silk,  strong  and  fine  fibre.  The  colour  is  greyish  white,  but 
not  so  white  as  Chinas.  Japans  are  made  up  in  books,  but  these 
contain  separate  hanks.  The  number  of  books  in  a  bale  varies. 
Each  book  weighs  from  4  Ib.  4  oz.  to  4  Ib.  12  oz.,  and  a  bale 
scales  from  140  to  150  Ib.  The  great  shipping  centre  for  Japan  is 
Yokohama. 

Bengal  raw  silk. — Coming  west,  there  are  the  well-known  Bengal 
silks,  which  are  all  filatures  or  re-reels.  They  are  quite  a  distinct  variety 
from  the  China,  Canton,  or  Japan  silks.  The  colour,  is  a  bright  yellow, 
except  some  little  which  is  a  greenish  white,  and  is  not  so  appreciated 
as  the  yellow.  Bengals  are  not  made  up  in  books  like  the  other  Far- 


i8  RAW   SILK 

Eastern  raws,  but  are  packed  in  bales  with  the  different  heads  loose, 
each  bale  weighing  about  140  to  150  Ib.  Of  Bengals  there  are 
three  crops  in  the  year,  and  these  crops  are  known  as  bunds,  and 
the  three  bunds  are  named  March  bund,  July  bund,  and  November 
bund.  Of  these  the  last-named  is  the  best  quality,  and  is  usually 
the  most  sought  after.  The  November  bund  silk  arrives  in  this 
country  about  April  or  May,  the  March  bund  in  September,  the  July 
in  January.  The  silks  are  reeled  from  10/14  to  45/50  deniers— 
i.e.  from  23, 100  yards  to  the  ounce,  to  6500  yards  to  the  ounce,  but 
the  bulk  are  16/20,  20/25,  and  26/30  deniers— the  latter,  say 
9180  yards  per  ounce,  being  a  favourite  size  in  this  country.  The 
best-known  qualities  are  the  Soleil  (a  special  re-reel  quality  and  much 
appreciated  on  the  Continent),  Surdahs,  Rose  Filatures,  Cooldahs 
(also  better  known  on  the  Continent),  Gonateas,  Bangettys,  Ranga- 
mattys,  Bhudderpores,  and  Chandpores.  Calcutta  is  the  great 
shipping  centre  for  "  Bengals." 

European  silks. — These  are,  with  the  best  Japans,  the  finest  and 
most  expensive  silks  used  commercially,  and  can  be  had  as  fine  as 
8/10  deniers,  which  is  equal  to  31,000  yards  to  the  ounce.  The 
district  in  which  the  worms  are  reared  and  the  silk  reeled  gives 
the  name  to  the  silk,  and  some  of  the  best-known  qualities  are 
the  Cevennes,  Piedmont,  Frioul,  Briance,  and  Messine.  All  these 
silks  are  filature-reeled,  but  the  diameter  of  the  swift  used  varies. 
The  usual  colour  is  yellow  naturally,  but  there  is  some  greyish  white, 
which  is  well  liked.  A  bale  of  French  or  Italian  raw  contains  100 
kilos.  =  220  Ib.  about.  These  raws  are  divided  into  grades  :  Extra 
classical,  classical,  sublime,  and  common. 

Comparatively  speaking,  very  little  European  raw  silk  comes  to 
this  country  except  for  using  in  the  singles.  Very  few  throwsters 
buy  it,  as  they  cannot  throw  it  to  compete  in  price  with  the  warp  and 
weft  made  on  the  Continent,  and  which  N  can  come  to  us  free  of  duty. 
The  cost  of  labour  is  so  much  cheaper  there  than  in  England,  and 
their  machinery  is  so  much  better  adapted  for  throwing  these  fine  silks 
than  ours,  that  the  continental  throwsters  can  deliver  thrown  silk 
in  England  from  6d.  to  9d.  per  pound  cheaper  than  an  English 
throwster,  granted  that  the  latter  can  buy  the  raw  silk  as  cheap  as  the 
former.  Some  of  the  large  filatures  also  have  their  own  throwing 
mills,  so  this  again  tends  to  diminish  the  cost  of  production.  On  the 
other  hand,  America  is  a  large  buyer  of  French  and  Italian  raw  silks, 
but  not  of  their  throwns.  Fortunately  for  the  American  throwster, 
the  raw  silk  goes  into  the  country  duty  free,  but  on  warp  and  weft  there 
is  a  very  heavy  duty  to  pay — namely,  30  per  cent,  ad  valorem. 

Doppione. — Another  class  of  raw  silk  of  which  mention  may  be 
made  is  the  Doppione,  which  is  generally  of  a  light  yellowish  colour. 
This  raw  silk  is  coarse  and  uneven,  and  is  reeled  from  double  cocoons 
— i.e.  in  the  case  where  the  worms  have  spun  their  cocoons  side  by 


COCOON   REELING  AND   QUALITIES   OF   SILK      19 

side  and  so  joined  them  that  it  is  necessary  to  reel  them  together,  the 
end  of  neither  cocoon  being  free  without  the  other.  The  production 
is  comparatively  small,  and  its  unevenness  makes  it  unsuitable  for 
good  class  work ;  hence  its  use  is  confined  to  the  manufacturing  of  the 
cheapest  materials  and  heavy  sewing  threads. 

Silk  crops. — Mention  has  been  made  under  the  heading  of 
"  Bengal  Silks  "  of  three  crops  per  annum.  More  than  one  crop  in  a 
season  is  usual  in  several  districts  in  the  various  silk-producing 
countries,  for  the  reason  that  in  the  early  spring,  with  some  species, 
the  ova  is  hatched  out,  worms  fully  developed,  cocoons  spun,  moths 
emerged,  and  they  in  their  turn  have  deposited  ova  which  is  hatched 
out  quickly;  and  the  whole  development  from  ova  to  moth  and 
reproduction  occupies  such  a  short  time  that  from  two  to  five  crops  of 
cocoons  are  reared  in  one  season. 

Shipping  raw  silks. — To  combat  against  the  well-known  cunning 
practised  in  the  Chinaman's  reeling  and  packing,  the  European  and 
American  shippers  at  Shanghai  and  Canton  are  compelled  to  have  a 
fully  qualified  inspector,  with  assistants,  to  examine  very  carefully 
every  book  of  raw  silk  before  packing  into  bales  and  shipping.  As 
far  as  is  possible,  without  damaging  the  silk,  the  books  are  opened  to 
see  if  there  has  been  any  inferior  silk  surreptitiously  packed  inside, 
which  is  often  the  case.  Sometimes  the  outside  mosses  are  really 
first-class  silk,  and  look  exceedingly  well,  being  good  colour,  bright, 
and  fine  in  size ;  but  the  inside  layers  have  been  most  cleverly  made 
up  of  coarser,  darker,  and  inferior  silk.  There  have  been  cases  on 
record  where  other  material  beside  silk  has  been  found  inside  the 
books  to  give  weight  to  them,  but  it  is  only  fair  to  say  that  there 
are  some  reliable  Chinese  dealers  whose  silk  can  generally  be  taken  to 
be  what  it  is  represented  to  be,  though  of  late  years  in  China  all  chops 
seem  to  have  more  or  less  deteriorated,  and  on  this  account  the  old 
recognised  differences  between  standard  chops  such  as  gold  kilins, 
yellow  and  blue  elephants,  can  no  longer  be  taken  as  a  working  basis 
of  relative  values  and  prices. 

After  the  receipt  and  passing  of  the  silk,  it  is  packed  first  in  a 
fine  cotton  cloth  commonly  termed  a  "  shirt,"  which  is  roped  round 
with  a  kind  of  grass  rope  of  native  manufacture.  The  silk  in  the 
shirt  is  afterwards  packed  in  a  series  of  layers  of  coarse  matting  and 
paper,  the  outside  wrapper  marked  with  the  shipper's  mark  and  con- 
secutive numbers.  On  arrival  of  the  silk  in  London,  where  it  is 
generally  warehoused  by  the  London  and  India  Docks  Joint  Com- 
mittee, the  bales  are  carefully  examined  to  see  if  they  have  been 
damaged  by  sea-water  or  other  cause.  This  can  generally  be  detected 
at  once  without  opening  the  bales,  as  the  outside  wrappers  will  show 
any  trace  of  dampness.  If  any  of  the  bales  are  damaged,  the  mer- 
chant generally  gives  instructions  at  once  to  have  the  run  (i.e.  the 
whole  of  the  bales  which  make  up  the  parcel)  "  worked "  (i.e. 


20  RAW   SILK 

examined).  This  is  undertaken  by  the  Dock  Company,  who  open 
out  the  bales  and  examine  each  book  separately  to  see  if  there  is  any 
trace  of  damage.  Any  doubtful  book  is  placed  on  one  side  and 
replaced  by  a  sound  one  taken  from  one  of  the  other  bales.  This 
process  goes  on  through  every  bale,  and  in  a  run  of,  say,  20  bales  of 
Chinas,  there  are  frequently  as  many  as  20  damaged  books,  which  are 
put  in  the  last  two  or  three  bales.  These  last-named  bales  are  then 
assessed  for  damaged  books  by  a  silk  broker,  who  gives  a  certificate  to 
say  that  he  has  examined  them,  and  considers  so  many  are  damaged, 
for  which  the  insurance  company  are  liable.  These  bales  are  now 
"  starred  "  by  the  Dock  Company,  and  entered  as  such  in  their  books. 
The  bale  marked  thus  "  * "  is  always  understood  to  be  a  damaged 
bale,  and  on  any  bale  so  marked  the  buyer  is  entitled  to  claim  the 
allowance  as  originally  claimed  from  the  insurance  company.  The 
damaged  silk  is  not  charged  for  at  all ;  thus,  if  in  the  ordinary  way 
a  bale  was  chargeable  104  Ib.  net,  and  on  inquiry  it  was-  found  that 
4  Ib.  had  been  allowed  for  damage,  the  bale  is  only  chargeable  at 
100  Ib.  net.  Generally  speaking,  all  bales  are  worked  by  the  Dock 
Company  on  arrival,  but  this,  of  course,  is  at  the  discretion  of  the 
owner. 

After  the  silk  has  been  worked  the  books  are  made  up  in  hessians, 
of  which  the  uniform  weight  is  2  Ib.  for  China  or  Canton  tsatlee,  and 
3  Ib.  for  Bengal  or  Japan  raw  silk.  On  the  outside  of  this  hessian 
is  marked  the  shipper's  mark,  the  number  of  the  bale,  the  stock 
number,  the  name  of  the  ship  in  which  it  arrived,  and  the  date  of 
arrival.  The  bales  are  then  ready  for  stocking  in  the  Docks  Com- 
mittee's warehouses  or  for  delivery  to  the  owner.  The  Dock  Company 
not  only  undertake  the  working  of  the  bales,  but  also  the  weighing, 
taring,  and  sampling,  which,  being  done  by  an  independent  party,  are 
accepted  by  the  trade  as  final  in  case  of  a  dispute  respecting  weight. 

On  bales  of  tsatlees  weighing  from  100  to  108  Ib.  there  is  an 
allowance  made  of  2  Ib.  per  bale,  which  is  termed  scorage.  For 
instance,  if  a  bale  scales  106  Ib.  in  the  hessian  with  a  tare  of  2  Ib., 
the  invoiceable  weight  is  102  Ib.,  although  the  net  weight  of  silk  is 
104  Ib.  This  2  Ib.  is  allowed  for  bands  and  unwindable  silk.  Odd 
ounces  are  not  charged  for.  A  bale  weighing  104  Ib.  12  oz.  is  only, 
charged  at  the  same  weight  as  one  scaling  104  Ib.  In  the  case  of 
Japans  and  re-reels,  in  which  there  is  no  unworkable  silk  in  the  shape 
of  bands,  the  actual  tare  of  ihe  paper  and  strings  round  the  bundles 
is  taken.  The  Dock  Company  strip  three  or  four  books,  and  having 
obtained  the  weight  of  the  paper  and  string,  take  a  percentage  as 
compared  with  the  weight  of  silk  stripped,  and  this  allowance  is  made 
on  the  whole  parcel.  This  varies  from  1  to  2  per  cent,  on  the  net 
weight. 

Terms. — Raw  silks  are  bought  and  sold  on  what  are  called 
"  Company's  terms,"  an  abbreviation  of  "  The  East  India  Company'^ 


COCOON    REELING  AND   QUALITIES   OF   SILK      21 

terms."  Briefly,  these  terms  are  understood  to  be  three  months' 
prompt  from  date  of  purchase  in  the  case  of  silk  on  the  "spot,"  and 
three  months'  prompt  from  date  of  arrival  in  the  case  of  silk  bought 
"  to  arrive."  During  these  three  months  the  buyer  is  at  liberty  to  allow 
the  bales  to  lie  in  the  warehouses  or  to  take  delivery  of  all  or  part  of 
his  purchase,  but  only  on  payment  of  the  proper  proportion  of  value 
of  the  silk  cleared — i.e.  delivered.  "Company's  terms"  are  also 
known  as  "London  terms,"  in  contradistinction  to  "Lyons  terms." 
The  latter  means  silk  delivered  free  in  Lyons  and  conditioned  in  the 
Lyons  conditioning-house.  The  weight  invoiced  to  the  purchaser  is 
the  conditioned  weight,  no  allowance  being  made  for  scorage,  and  cash 
is  due  on  delivery  with  a  90  days'  rebate  at  the  rate  of  6  per  cent,  per 
annum. 


CHAPTEE    III 

SILK  THROWING 

SILK  throwing  is  the  name  given  to  a  series  of  operations  through 
which  the  raw  silk  is  worked  to  convert  it  into  a  weavable  state  for 
warp  or  weft,  and  the  produce  from  a  silk  throwster's  mill  is  known 


FIG.  7. — Heads  of  silk  ;  book  of  silk. 

as  thrown  silk.  The  various  kinds  of  thrown  silks  best  known  are  : 
Singles,  used  for  warp  or  weft ;  Tram,  used  for  weft ;  Organzine,  used 
for  warp;  No-throw,  used  in  the  Derby  and  Leicester  trade;  and 
Silk  Sewings,  used  by  tailors  and,  in  the  boot  trade.  Fig.  7  shows  a 
book  of  silk  at  A,  and  gives  a  good  idea  as  to  how  a  tsatlee-reeled 


SILK   SPLITTING  23 

China  or  Canton  is  made  up.  This  book  can  be  split  up  into  mosses 
and  lesser  slips.  B  shows  a  head  or  skein  of  Bengal  silk  opened  out, 
while  C  and  D  are  each  a  head  of  Japan  and  Italian  filature  respec- 
tively. 

Splitting. — Taking  first  the  tsatlees,  the  throwsters  divide  the 
books  into  the  separate  mosses  (twelve  mosses  to  a  book).  They  are 
generally  found  entirely  apart  from  each  other,  so  there  is  not  much 
difficulty  in  parting  them  unless  the  silk  has  been  damaged  in  some 
way.  The  mosses,  however,  are  too  large  and  unwieldy  to  be  put 


FIG.  8. — Splitting  mosses. 

upon  the  swifts  of  the  winding  machine,  for  the  strain  on  the  single 
thread  in  the  process  of  winding  would  be  so  great  that  the  thread 
would  be  constantly  breaking  and  so  causing  waste ;  hence  it  is 
necessary  that  the  mosses  be  split  up  into  smaller  skeins,  which  are 
generally  termed  slips.  The  sizes  of  the^e  slips  vary,  but  it  is  the 
splitter's  object  to  get  them  as  nearly  all  one  size  as  possible.  One 
moss  is  generally  split  into  about  three  slips.  In  some  classes  of  silk 
where  the  reeling  from  the  cocoon  has  been  carelessly  done  this  is  a 
very  tedious  process,  on  account  of  the  tangled  threads,  and  unless 


24  SILK  THROWING 

\ 

the  attendant  is  a  very  careful  worker  she  can  easily  spoil  a  fair 
amount  of  silk.  The  machine  used  is  but  a  simple  contrivance,  as 
will  be  seen  from  Fig.  8.  The  moss  or  skein  S  is  opened  out  by  the 
operator — generally  a  girl  sitting  on  the  seat  C — and  placed  over 
the  two  barrels  or  swifts  A,  the  bottom  one  being  movable  in  a  slot 
B  so  as  to  accommodate  mosses  or  skeins  of  different  diameters.  The 
operator  then  places  her  hands  in  between  the  two  sides  of  the  skein, 
and  revolves  it  quickly  round  and  round  the  swifts  in  the  direction  of 
the  arrows  D,  D,  which  operation  causes  the  skein  to  open  out  on 
the  face  of  the  swifts,  tending  to  get  the  threads  straight,  and  as 
nearly  as  possible  in  the  same  position  as  when  the  moss  or  skein  was 
on  the  cocoon-reeling  machine.  In  this  way  the  moss  is  made  ready 
for  being  divided  into  the  required  number  of  slips  of  similar  size  at 
the  most  suitable  places,  and.  split  or  parted  with  a  minimum  of 
broken  threads  between  each  division.  The  moss  ready  for  division 
into  three  slips  or  skeins  is  shown  at  the  top  of  Fig.  8.  In  this 
parting  of  the  books  into  mosses,  and  the  splitting  of  the  mosses  into 
slips,  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  waste  made,  known  in  the  trade  as 
parters'  and  splitters'  waste,  which  is  always  "  bright " — that  is  to  say, 
free  from  soap  or  other  similar  matters. 

Sorting. — Having  thus  divided  the  books  into  workable  slips, 
these  are  now  carefully  gone  through  and  sorted — the  coarse  from 
the  fine,  the  good  colour  from  the  bad  and  indifferent,  the  nibby 
and  doubtful  removed,  each  being  put  in  a  separate  heap  and  kept 
entirely  apart  until  the  doubling  process,  when  some  throwsters 
double  or  fold  a  fine  and  a  coarse  thread  together  to  get  a  desired 
size  or  thickness  —  which,  Jiowever,  is  very  unsatisfactory,  and  is 
a  practice  not  resorted  to  now  by  the  best  throwsters.  Generally 
speaking,  it  may  be  taken  that  when  once  the  slips  have  been  sorted 
they  go  through  the  mill  entirely  separate.  It  is  part  of  the  duty  of 
the  sorter  not  only  to  divide  the  slips  into  the  different  grades,  but 
also  to  detach  loose  ends  and  straighten  them.  This  process  therefore 
entails  waste  again,  and  is  known  as  sorters'  waste,  which  is  also 
"bright."  Of  the  waste  produced  by  throwsters  the  most  valuable 
are  the  three  previously  mentioned — namely,  "parter's,"  "splitter's," 
and '"sorter's.^ 

To  none  of  the  previous  processes  are  the  filatures  or  re-reels 
subjected,  because  they  are  already  in  the  slip  state,  and  are  made  of 
such  a  convenient  size  for  winding  that  it  is  not  at  all  necessary  to 
divide  them  further. 

Bright  silk. — At  this  stage  the  throwster  must  decide  whether  he 
will  throw  the  silk  "  bright,"  or,  as  is  generally  the  case  in  England 
with  tsatlee  reels,  whether  he  will  work  it  with  soap.  The  term 
"  worked  bright "  is  understood  in  the  trade  to  denote  that  the  slips 
have  not,  prior  to  winding,  cleaning,  and  throwing,  been  washed  or 
soaked  with  soap,  which  is  done  to  make  the  silk  wind  more  easily. 


SILK  WASHING  AND   DRYING  25 

Filatures  and  re-reels,  and  on  the  Continent  tsatlees  even,  are  gener- 
ally "worked  bright,"  but  the  continental  throwsters  have  some 
ingredients  other  than  soap,  by  using  which  they  help  the  silk  to  wind 
better,  and  do  not  detract  so  much  from  the  lustre  of  the  silk  as  soap 
does.  Many  of  the  compositions  used  abroad,  whilst  softening  the 
silk  for  winding  purposes,  add  weight  to  it,  a  certain  proportion  of 
which  is  retained  in  the  fibre  and  will  withstand  boiling  liquors  to  a 
remarkable  degree.  Slips  to  be  thrown  "  bright "  are  at  once  taken 
to  the  winding  frame. 

Washing. — Washing  is  not  an  elaborate  process.  The  slips  or 
hanks  are  taken  and  soaked  in  a  solution  of  hot  water  and  soap. 
The  hot  water,  combined  with  the  alkali  of  the  soap,  softens  the 
natural  gum  or  bast  of  the  silk  and  tends  to  make  the  thread  pliable, 
and  to  loosen  the  threads  one  from  the  other ;  and  the  fatty  matters 
of  the  soap  counteract  the  tendency  the  fibres  would  have,  on  drying, 
of  matting  together.  It  is  essential  that  a  good  white  curd  soap  be 
used  on  account  of  the  absorbent  power  of  silk,  as  an  inferior  soap 
of  bad  colour  will  dry  yellow  on  the  silk  and  thus  dimmish  its 
value  by  affecting  its  colour,  and  may  possibly  make  it  sticky  in 
working.  The  question  of  soap  used  in  the  washing  process  is  also 
a  very  important  matter  to  the  silk  waste  spinner  who  buys  the 
throwster's  waste.  Where  dark-coloured  soap  is  used,  the  waste  from 
the  processes  following  the  washing  is  of  a  bad  colour,  which  no 
subsequent  boiling  will  dissipate.  Some  waste,  which  immediately 
after  the  winding  and  cleaning  appears  a  good  white  colour,  turns  a 
yellowish  brown  when  stored  in  a  room  which  exposes  the  waste  to 
sunlight.  This  is  not  the  fault  of  the  silk,  but  of  the  soap  used  in 
washing. 

The  compounds  used  in  place  of  soap  are  often  sprinkled  on  the 
silk  by  means  of  a  brush,  and  the  silk  allowed  to  lie  twelve  hours  or 
so  until  the  bast  is  well  softened.  As  mention  has  been  made  of  the 
silk  absorbing  a  proportion  of  the  soap,  a  question  naturally  arises  as 
to  what  extent  this  weighting  is  carried  on.  Some  throwsters  use 
more  soap  than  others,  but  a  good  average,  and  an  average  which 
some  throwsters  guarantee,  is  that  for  every  1  Ib.  of  thrown  silk  the 
net  result  of  boiled-off  silk — that  is,  silk  free  from  soap  and  its 
natural  gum — should  be  11 J  oz.  net — a  loss  in  degumming  of  28 
per  cent.  Silk  thrown  "  bright,"  when  boiled  off,  loses  only  from  20 
to  22  per  cent.,  which  shows  that  soaped  silk  has  picked  up  from  5 
to  8  per  cent,  of  soap;  but  some  manufacturers  complain  of  con- 
tinental "throwns"  being  adulterated  with  some  compound  which 
spoils  the  "bottom" — i.e.  colour — of  the  silk,  and  makes  it  impos- 
sible to  thoroughly  boil  off  the  thread  a  small  percentage  of  the 
ingredients  used. 

Drying. — After  the  washing  comes  the  drying,  which  is  generally 
done  in  one  of  the  two  following  ways  : — The  slips  are  freed  from  as 


26 


SILK   THROWING 


much  moisture  as  possible  by  wringing  by  hand,  and  are  then  put 
into  a  hydro  extractor,  which  dries  them  so  well  that  it  is  only 
necessary  to  hang  them  up  for  a  few  days  in  a  room  of  ordinary 
temperature.  Other  throwsters  have  a  steam-heated  stove,  in  which 
they  hang  their  washed  slips  for  drying. 

Windiny. — The  winding  and  following  processes  are  the  same  for 
soaped  slips  as  for  silk  thrown  "bright."  Winding,  as  the  word 
implies,  is  the  name  given  to  the  process  by  which  the  slips,  washed 
or  "bright,"  as  the  case  may  be,  are  run  in  a  continuous  thread  on  to 
bobbins.  The  winding  machine  consists  of  a  series  of  swifts  A, 
Fig.  9,  placed  side  by  side,  and  revolving  on  their  own  axes  quite 
independent  of  each  other.  The  slip  or  hank  is  placed  upon  these 
swifts,  one  hank  on  each  swift,  as  shown  at  B,  and  when  in  position 


FIG.  9.— Silk  winding. 

the  attendant's  first  duty  is  to  find  the  end  of  the  silk  on  the  outer 
side  of  the  skein.  This  end  she  passes  through  a  guide  or  eyelet  C, 
on  to  a  bobbin  D.  The  bobbin  is  revolved  by  means  of  a  drum  or 
pulley  E,  which  is  fixed  firmly  to  a  skewer  or  peg  passed  through  the 
bobbin,  and  rests  lightly  in  the  brackets  F.  The  small  pulleys  E  are 
revolved  by  means  of  driving  pulleys  G,  and  the  thread  is  traversed 
from  end  to  end  of  the  bobbin  by  means  of  the  guide  or  eyelet  shown 
atC. 

By  this  means  the  thread  is  wound  on  the  bobbin  without  any 
friction,  which  would  tend  to  flatten  it.  When  once  the  end  of  the 
silk  is  found  in  a  hank  it  does  not  follow  that  the  silk  will  wind  in 
one  continuous  thread  until  the  whole  skein  is  complete,  for  in  one 
hank  there  are  frequently  scores  of  lengths  which  the  attendant  is 


SILK   CLEANING 


continually  piecing  up,  necessitating  her  continual  attention  in  finding 
fresh  ends.  There  are  also  places  in  the  raw  silk  which  will  not  bear 
the  strain  of  the  tension  between  the  bobbin  and  the  swift,  and  so  the 
end  breaks.  In  such  a  case  the  attendant  removes  this  fine  place  and 
continues  to  unwind  by  hand  until  she  comes  to  the  firm  thread  again. 
This  fine  silk  which  is  taken  out  is  put  on  one  side  and  is  known  as 
"  winders' "  waste,  and  is  what  is  called  in  the  trade  the  fine,  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  coarse  or  cleaners'  waste  made  in  the  next  process. 

Cleaning. — Sometimes  during  the  winding,  but  preferably  after 
as  a  separate  process,  a  clearing  or  "cleaning"  of  the  thread  from 
gouty,  slubby,  and  foul  places  is  attempted.  The  method  adopted  is 
as  follows  :— The  bobbin  of  silk  is  taken  from  the  winding  frame,  the 
thread  re-wound  on  to  a  fresh  bobbin,  and  the  thread  passed  in  its 


r  n 


FIG.  10. — Clearer  or  cleaning  bars. 

transit  through  a  series  of  guides  or  cleaners,  which  may  either  be  a 
steel  plate  with  a  slot  in,  or  two  parallel  plates  placed  so  close  to  each 
other  that  the  presence  of  any  bulky  knot,  husk,  foul  place,  or  coarse 
thread  is  immediately  detected,  and  by  means  of  a  simple  automatic 
contrivance  the  receiving  bobbin,  which  is  worked  on  the  same 
principle  as  in  the  winding  frame,  is  stopped.  The  attendant  then 
takes  out  the  faulty  thread,  pieces  up,  and  the  process  continues. 
These  rejections  from  the  cleaning  mill  are  known  as  "cleaners'"  waste. 
Fig.  10  shows  the  cleaning  bars,  the  one  at  A  being  open,  and  the 
other  one  closed.  The  opening  is  regulated  to  any  requisite  distance 
by  means  of  the  set  of  screws  B,  B.  After  the  cleaning  process, 
which  is  repeated  two  or  more  times  to  obtain  the  quality  and  the 
cleanliness  of  thread  required,  the  subsequent  operations  vary  accord- 


28  SILK  THROWING 

ing  to  what  it  is  desired  the  silk  should  be  converted  into — whether 
no-throw,  singles,  tram,  or  organzine. 

No-throw. — No-throw,  as  its  name-implies,  has  no  twist  or  spin 
(turns  per  inch)  put  into  it  beyond  just  sufficient  to  bind  the  respec- 
tive filaments  composing  the  thread  together.  It  is  silk  taken  straight 
off  the  cleaning  bobbins — two,  three  or  more  ends  doubled  together ; 
and  if  it  could  be  used  in  that  state  would  only  require  reeling 
into  skeins,  but,  being  a  most  unsatisfactory  article  to  use  thus, 
most  throwsters  put  in  a  little  twist.  Even  then  great  care  is 
necessary  in  the  reeling,  or  the  threads  separate  and  form  "  loopy  " 
places,  which  are  very  objectionable,  causing  a  weak  thread,  and  it  is 
to  mitigate  such  faults  that  the  thread  is  slightly  twisted.  Whilst  so 
guarding  against  "  loopy  faults  "  it  is  essential  that  care  be  taken  not 
to  have  too  many  turns  per  inch,  or  then  it  would  be  practically  use- 
less for  any  purpose,  being  too  hard  to  cover  well.  The  Derby  and 
Nottingham  markets  take  a  fair  quantity  of  this  class  of  silk  for  fancy 
braids  and  the  covering  of  cords  for  tasselling  purposes. 

Tram. — In  the  making  of  tram  used  as  weft  or  shoot,  two,  three, 
or  more  bobbins  of  cleaned  silk  are  used,  the  number  varying  accord- 
ing to  the  special  requirements  of  the  customer,  which  may  be  for 
what  is  termed  two-  or  three-  (or  more)  threads  tram. 

Two-threads  tram  and  three-threads  tram  are  current  productions, 
but  for  special  purposes,  where  a  coarse  count  is  needed,  sometimes  a 
four-thread  tram  is  made.  No  twist  whatever  is  put  into  the  single 
thread  used  for  tram.  For  example,  if  a  three-thread  tram  is  needed, 
three  ends  of  cleaned  silk  are  wound  together  on  to  one  bobbin 
without  any  twist  being  put  in.  The  machine  used  for  the  purpose 
is  similar  to  the  winding  machine  described  in  Fig.  9  ;  but  so  as  to 
ensure  that  a  two-thread  or  a  three-thread  tram  has  two  or  three 
threads  throughout  its  entire  length,  an  automatic  stop  motion  is  used, 
which  throws  the  receiving  bobbin  out  of  gear  whenever  a  thread 
breaks  between  the  receiving  bobbin  and  the  bobbin  from  which  the 
thread  is  being  unwound.  Fig.  11  shows  a  side  section  of  the 
machine  and  the  winding  or  doubling  process.  Two,  three,  or  more 
bobbins,  as  required,  are  placed  on  the  bobbin  board  A,  in  a  line  with 
the  receiving  bobbin.  The  thread  T  is  passed  from  the  bobbin  B 
through  the  flyer  F  over  the  guide  rod  G  to  the  detector  D,  and 
thence  through  traverse  guide  on  to  the  receiving  bobbin  H.  When 
the  thread  breaks,  the  detector  drops  on  to  the  lever  L,  which  is 
balanced  in  such  a  way  that  the  weight  of  the  detector  causes  the 
lever  to  tilt  up  and  project  its  end  J  into  contact  with  the  star  wheel 
S,  fixed  on  the  spindle  which  goes  through  the  receiving  bobbin,  thus 
stopping  the  revolution  of  the  bobbin  until  the  broken  end  is  tied  up. 
The  receiving  bobbin  is  revolved  in  exactly,  the  same  manner  as 
shown  in  Fig.  9.  The  position  of  the  flyer  F  is  so  arranged  that  the 
thread  does  not  run  any  chance  of  catching  against  the  bobbin  head. 


SILK   ORGANZINE 


29 


The  bobbin  containing  the  desired  ends  is  then  taken  to  the  reel, 
Fig.  14,  or  to  the  spinning  mill  described  under  the  heading 
"  Organzine,"  and  a  very  slight  twist  put  in  there.  This  twist,  spin, 
or  throw,  as  it  is  differently  termed — really  turns  per  inch  given  to 
the  thread — is  varied  to  suit  the  purpose  for  which  the  silk  is 
required,  ordinary  twists,  suitable  for  Macclesfield,  Bradford,  and 
Glasgow  trade,  being  about  1\  turns  per  inch,  whilst  for  the  elastic 
web  trade  and  some  classes  of  hosiery  a  much  harder  twist  is  needed 
— say  about  5  to  6  turns  per  inch. 


FIG.  11.— Silk  doubling. 

Organzine. — Like  tram,  this  is  made  up  of  two  or  more  threads 
folded  together;  but,  having  to  be  used  for  warp  in  manufacturing 
purposes,  it  is  necessary  for  it  to  have  enough  twist  in  the  single 
thread  and  in  its  folded  state  to  ensure  its  being  able  to  withstand 
the  strain  and  friction  of  the  harness,  healds,  and  reeds  in  the  loom. 
Thus  in  two  essential  details  does  it  differ  from  tram ;  for  whilst  the 
latter  contains  no  twist  in  its  single  threads,  organzine  singles  are 
spun  or  twisted  on  the  throwing  or  spinning  mill,  and  are  again  spun, 
or  twist  put  in,  after  being  doubled  or  wound  together  to  make  a 
two-fold  or  three-fold  yarn.  Again,  a  great  deal  more  twist  is 


SILK  THROWING 


necessary  for  organ  zine  than  for  tram,  for  the  latter  is  kept  as  soft  as 
possible,  so  as  to  make  as  bulky  a  thread  as  can  be,  for  the  sake  of 
lustre  and  fulness  in  the  finished  article,  whilst  the  former  is  fairly 
hard-twisted  to  give  it  strength.  A  very  good  twist  for  organzine  of 
good  quality  is  19  to  21  turns  per  inch,  but  different  throwsters  hold 
very  varied  opinions  as  to  what  is  best. 


Fiu.  12. — Throwing  mill  or  spinning. 

SPINNING. — The  spinning  or  throwing  mill  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  12. 
The  bobbin  A  containing  the  singles  is  placed  on  the  spindle  B.  A 
circular  weight  is  placed  on  the  top  of  the  bobbin  to  keep  it  steady, 
and  above  the  weight  is  fixed  a  light  wire  flyer  C,  through  which  the 
thread  is  passed,  and  from  thence  on  to  the  receiving  bobbin  D. 
This  bobbin  is  often  made  of  lead,  and  is  driven  by  means  of  a  roller 


SILK   SINGLES   AND   REELING 


or  wheels  E,  and  whilst  the  thread  is  passing  from  the  bobbin  A  in  the 
direction  of  the  arrow  to  the  receiving  bobbin  D,  the  spindle  is  being 
revolved  by  means  of  a  band  or  friction  strap  passed  over  the  tin 
cylinder  G  and  spindle  wharf  H,  by  which  means  any  requisite 
amount  of  turns  per  inch  can  be  put  into  the  thread.  For  economy 
of  space  and  labour,  the  spinning  frame  is  built  in  tiers,  two  or  three 
rows  of  spindles  one  above  the  other,  as  shown  by  the  drawing. 
Fig.  13  shows  the  usual  flyer  used  in  spinning  and  winding,  which  is 
fixed  so  that  the  leg  receives  the  thread  midway  between  the  heads  of 
the  bobbin  to  ensure  as  little  friction  as  possible  on  the  thread.  For 
various  counts  of  thread  different  flyers  are  used.  When  the  folded 
threads  of  organzine  are  twisted  together,  the  twist  is  put  in  the 
reverse  way  to  the  twist  on  the  singles,  and  about  9  turns  per  inch  is 
an  excellent  twist  on  the  doubled  thread. 
In  Fig.  13  the  parts  marked  A  are  made 
of  metal  and  the  parts  marked  B  of  wood. 

Singles. — These  consist  of  the  single 
filament  of  raw  silk,  either  untwisted  as 
delivered  by  the  cocoon  reeler,  or  suffici- 
ently twisted  to  enable  it  to  withstand 
the  operations  of  boiling  or  dyeing 
through  which  it  may  have  to  pass  before 

weaving.     It  is  used  for  warp  or  for  weft  A IU  ||  •  i 

for  different  makes  of  cloths,  and  is  hard 
or  soft  spun  in  accordance  with  the  re- 
quirements of  manufacturers,  whether  for 
use  as  warp  or  weft. 

Reeling. — The  bobbins  of  doubled 
silk  are  taken  to  a  reeling  frame,  Fig. 
14,  and  placed  on  the  spindles  A,  which 
are  fitted  up  and  revolved  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  spinning  frame  spindles. 
The  thread  is  passed  through  the  flyer  eye  and  on  to  the  swift  B,  which 
draws  the  thread  off  the  bobbin.  The  spin  or  twist  necessary  is  put 
in  during  the  progress  of  the  thread  from  bobbin  to  swift  by  the 
revolution  of  the  spindle  which  is  driven  by  the  cylinder  C.  There 
are  two  different  terms  for  reeled  skeins — namely,  "  ordinary  "  reeled 
and  "  grant "  reeled.  An  ordinary  reeled  skein  will  measure  in  length 
from  1000  to  2000  yds.,  but  a  grant  reeled  skein  may  go  up  to 
10,000  yds.  in  length.  The  difference  between  the  two  reels  is  in 
the  traverse  of  the  thread  during  the  reeling  operation.  An  ordinary 
reel  will  traverse  the  thread  from  side  to  side  about  1J  in.,  but 
the  grant  reel  much  more ;  and  the  traverse  of  the  latter  is  also  very 
quick,  with  the  result  that  there  is  less  liability  of  the  thread  becoming 
entangled  and  matted  during  boiling  off  and  dyeing.  Then,  again, 
in  winding  from  hank  to  bobbin  for  warping  purposes,  a  grant  reeled 


FIG.  13.— Flyer. 


32  SILK  THROWING 

skein  runs  better,  and  that,  combined  with  its  great  length,   is  an 
economy  in  winding. 

Ordinary  cross  reel  skeins  in  England  are  reeled  1000,  1500,  or 
2000  yds.  long,  but  on  the  Continent  they  vary  very  considerably, 
although  500  and  1000  metres  are  the  standard  lengths  of  a  skein  of 
ordinary  reel.  When  the  skeins  are  all  the  same  length  and  the  sizes 
properly  divided  into  bundles  or  hanks,  continental  throwns  are 
termed  tours  comptes — generally  written  "t.c.";  and  when  the  lengths 
of  the  skeins  vary,  and  are  consequently  not  carefully  subdivided,  they 
are  offered  as  non  tours  comptes — written  "  n.t.c."  English  throwsters 
do  not  mix  up  skeins  of  different  lengths  in  the  same  parcel  of  thrown 
silk  like  their  continental  competitors.  Until  late  years  throwsters 
here  used  to  always  reel  their  thrown  silk  ordinary  reel  in  the  first 


FIG.  14.— Reeling. 

instance,  and  weigh  each  skein  for  size  and  count,  and  then,  after 
sorting  into  the  separate  sizes,  if  the  manufacturer  wanted  grant  reel, 
they  would  rewind  the  skeins  on  to  bobbins,  piecing  each  short  skein 
up  for  requisite  lengths,  and  then  re-reeling  from  the  bobbins.  By 
this  means  the  resulting  skein  was  more  accurate  in  size  throughout 
its  entire  length  than  is  the  case  when  grant  reel  skeins  are  reeled 
straight  from  the  throwing  mill  bobbins  into  5000,  7500,  or  10,000 
yds.,  and  then  sized  or  deniered. 

Sizing. — This  is  an  important  part  of  the  throwster's  duties — 
namely,  the  dividing  of  the  silk  into  sizes,  i.e.  count.  All  silks  vary 
in  thickness  in  a  given  length,  and  when  it  is  understood  that  the 


SILK    DENIERING  33 

best  chops  of  Chinas  yield  in  two-threads  tram  or  organ  zine  sizes  from 
30  to  60  deniers,  —  that  is  to  say,  some  sizes  quite  double  the  thickness 
of  others,  —  the  importance  of  sizing  will  readily  be  recognised. 
Naturally  the  finer  sizes  will  do  better  for  finer  and  more  delicate 
work  than  the  coarser  silk.  The  general  way  adopted  is  to  "  dram  " 
or  "denier"  the  skeins  by  means  of  a  spring  balance,  Fig.  15.  This 
consists  of  a  small  instrument  with  a  fairly  delicate  spiral  spring,  and 
an  index  finger  attached,  the  former  enclosed  in  a  wooden  or  metal 
covering  to  protect  it  from  the  moisture  of  the  atmosphere  and  from 
dust.  On  the  outer  covering  are  the  figures  denoting  the  different 
sizes  from  1  to  200  or  more  deniers,  or,  in  drams,  17  deniers  to.  the 
dram.  At  the  end  of  the  spring  is  attached  a  hook  on  which  the 
skein  of  silk  for  sizing  is  hung.  The  deniers  or  drams  denoted  on  the 
indicator  are  marked  so  that  the  index  finger  attached  to,  the  spring 
will  be  brought  down  to  such  a  size  or  weight,  when  a  skein  of  exactly 
the  same  weight  is  put  upon  the  hook.  Supposing  the  hank  to  be 
sized  measures  1000  yds.,  and  when  put  on  the  hook  the  index 
finger  points  to  3J  drams,  then  the  actual  size  is  known  as  3J 
drams  to  the  1000  yds.,  or  55  deniers,  which  is  equal  to  5040 


Fi«.  15.  —  Denier  scale. 

yds.  per  ounce.  Had  the  skein  been  1500  yds.,  and  indicated  4J 
drams  on  the  dramming  machine,  the  actual  size  would  be  3  drams  to 
1000  yds.,  or  51  deniers,  equal  to  5600  yds.  per  ounce,  about. 

On  the  Continent  the  sizing  of  the  silk  is  done  at  the  conditioning- 
houses  :  in  the  case  of  grant  reel  filature  thrown  silks  always,  and 
sometimes  with  regard  to  ordinary  China  thrown  silks.  In  the 
conditioning-house,  wrappings  of,  say,  100  metres  are  taken  from 
different  skeins  of  silk,  and  their  weight  taken  most  carefully  on  well- 
regulated  machines.  The  sizes  of  each  wrapping  are  taken  (say  about 
twenty  from  each  bale  conditioned),  an  average  struck,  and  the  silk 
offered  and  sold  as  such  and  such  sizes,  representing  the  result  of  the 
conditioning-house  test.  Supposing,  for  instance,  the  conditioning- 
house  returns  showed  that  out  of  twenty  wrappings  tested  the  result 
was  :  — 


3  skeins  20  deniers 

4  22 


24 
26 
28 
30 


The  average  would  be  24 '90  deniers,  and  the  silk 


\V<> 


uld  be  offered  as  24/26  deniers. 


34  SILK  THROWING 

Generally,  the  differences  are  not  so  great  as  the  above,  as  the  silk  is 
sized  to  half-denier,  but  the  example  given  shows  the  method. 

Make-up. — Trams,  organzines,  and  no-throw  are  made  up  into 
hanks,  each  hank  containing  a  number  of  skeins,  varying,  as  they  are 
1000,  1500,  or  2000  yds.  ordinary  reel,  or  5000,  7500,  or  10,000 
yds.  grant  reel.  These  hanks  are  made  up  into  bundles,  the  bundles 
of  organzine  generally  being  short  and  weighing  from  6  to  8  Ib. 
Tram  bundles  are  long,  the  length  of  the  reel,  in  fact,  weighing  from 
12  to  17  Ib.  Different  throwsters  have  their  own  way  of  making  up. 
The  bundles  are  tied  up  in  the  ordinary  way  with  string,  but  as  there 
is  always  an  allowance  made  to  the  buyer  on  account  of  this, 
throwsters  are  not  very  sparing  in  this  respect. 

Weights. — On  English  thrown  silks  there  is  what  is  termed 
"  scorage  "  allowed,  which  is  1  per  cent,  deducted  from  the  actual  net 
weight  of  the  silk  in  the  bundles.  Supposing  there  to  be  eight 
bundles  of  China  organzine,  weighing  50  Ib.  8  oz.  net  as  they  stand 
with  the  strings  on,  the  weight  chargeable  is  50  Ib.  only,  the  8  oz. 
being  allowed  to  cover  string  and  tie  bands.  In  the  case  of  continental 
thrown  silks,  which  are  not  generally  made  up  in  bundle  form,  but  in 
bunches,  the  silk  is  charged  conditioned  weight.  A  bale  of  thrown  or 
"  net "  silk  for  conditioning  is  sent  to  the  conditioning-house,  where 
the  tare  is  entirely  stripped  off  and  most  carefully  weighed.  First 
the  actual  gross  weight  of  the  bale  is  taken,  and  after  taring  the  net 
weight  of  the  silk  is  obtained,  and  on  this  weight  the  subsequent 
calculations  are  made.  The  process  of  conditioning  is  a  very  import- 
ant work,  and  the  most  delicate  scales  and  manipulations  are  necessary, 
as  only  a  few  heads  from  each  bale  are  actually  tested,  and  from  the 
result  of  the  weighings  of  these  few  heads  the  throwster  has  to  abide 
in  charging  up  his  bale. 

The  heads  tested,  which  have  previously  been  most  carefully 
weighed,  are  dried  in  a  stove  until  absolutely  free  from  moisture,  and 
then  weighed  again,  and  the  percentage  of  loss  in  weight  is  taken  as 
compared  with  the  original  weight  of  the  silk  before  drying.  This 
percentage  of  loss  is  calculated  on  the  weight  of  the  whole  bale,  and 
so  the  absolute  dry  weight  of  the  lot  is  obtained.  This,  however, 
does  not  mean  that  the  silk  is  to  be  charged  absolute  dry  weight,  as 
it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  it  contains  11  per  cent,  of  natural 
moisture,  which  is  therefore  added  to  the  absolute  dry  weight,  and 
the  result  represents  the  weight  chargeable  to  the  buyer,  who  pur- 
chases on  the  conditioning-house  certificate. 

To  overcome  the  risk  of  a  seller  taking  out  silk  and  putting  moisture 
in  the  bale  to  make  up  weight  after  the  issuing  of  the  certificate 
by  the  conditioning-house,  the  latter  remake  up  the  bale  themselves 
and  seal  it  with  the  official  seal,  and  this  enables  the  buyer  to 
see  at  once  if  it  has  been  tampered  with.  The  advantage  to  the 
buyer  of  conditioned  silk  is  that  he  is  certain  to  get  the  full  weight 


SILK  THROWING  35 

of  silk  without  paying  for  moisture  over  and  above  the  legal  amount, 
and  there  is  absolutely  no  temptation  to  the  throwster  to  turn  out  his 
silk  in  too  damp  condition,  as  he  might  be  a  very  heavy  loser  by  so 
doing  should  the  conditioning-house  authorities  happen  to  test  some 
heads  which  were  considerably  more  damp  than  the  actual  bale  as  a 
whole. 

The  most  prized  qualities  of  silk  are — 

1.  Its  extreme  brilliance  and  lustre,  it  being  the  most  lustrous  of 
textile  fibres. 

2.  Its  great  strength,  which  is  supposed  to  be  nearly  one-third  of 
best  iron  wire. 

3.  Its  elasticity. 

4.  Its  durability,   which  is  very  considerable  when  the  fibre  is 
pure  silk. 

It  takes  coal-tar  dyes  with  ease  and  exhibits  a  very  great  affinity 
for  weighting  materials  of  various  kinds.  So  much  is  this  the  case 
that  many  so-called  silk  fabrics ,  are  composed  chiefly  of  metallic 
weighting  matters  with  a  very  small  percentage  of  silk  fibre. 

Scroop. — When  silk  is  passed  through  an  acid  bath  (acetic  acid) 
and  afterwards  dried,  it  gives  out  when  handled  a  peculiar  rustling, 
grating  noise  known  as  "  Scroop." 

Like  all  other  textile  fibres,  silk  absorbs  moisture  from  the 
atmosphere  without  appearing  very  damp  to  the  touch.  As  it  is  an 
expensive  article,  it  is  most  important  when  purchasing  to  know  that 
the  legal  limit  (11  per  cent.)  of  moisture  in  the  fibre  is  not  exceeded. 


CHAPTEE   IV 
SILK  WASTES 

THE  term  "  silk  waste  "  covers  all  classes  of  the  raw  silk  which  are 
unwindable  and  altogether  unsuited  for  the  throwing  process.  The 
term  "  waste,"  understood  in  the  general  sense  as  conveying  the  idea 
of  something  worthless  or  of  no  use,  is  quite  a  misnomer.  But, 
before  the  introduction  of  silk  waste  spinning,  the  refuse  from  the 
reeling  and  winding  mills  was  indeed  waste,  there  being  at  that  time 
no  use  for  it  whatever,  except  for  what  could  be  combed  and  spun  by 
distaff  and  spinning  wheel,  as  still  practised  by  peasantry  in  India 
and  other  Eastern  countries.  Considering  that  of  all  the  silk  spun 
by  the  silkworm  more  than  half  is  useless  for  the  throwster,  it  will 
readily  be  understood  that  there  must  have  been  a  large  accumulation 
of  this  material,  and  therefore  a  great  future  before  an  industry 
which  could  use  up  this  so-called  rubbish.  Although  there  are  a 
great  many  different  grades  and  different  classes  of  waste  silk,  there 
are  really  few  distinct  ways  in  which  they  are  all  produced,  most,  if 
not  all,  varieties  being  the  waste  from  one  or  more  of  the  following 
seven  processes  : — 

METHODS  OF  WASTE  PRODUCTION. — 1.  The  silkworm  commences 
to  spin  its  cocoon  by  first  fastening  itself  to  the  twig  of  a  tree  or 
between  two  leaves.  Where  the  worm  is  reared  by  the  peasants  in 
their  cottages,  the  peasants  use  straws,  to  which  the  worms  attach 
themselves.  All  this  silk  is  unwindable,  coarse,  and  uneven,  and 
consequently  of  no  use  to  the  throwster.  Naturally  this  first  waste 
is  very  much  mixed  with  straw  and  leaves,  and  is  of  a  dull,  lustreless 
nature. 

2.  The  cocoons  are  made  up  of  layers  of  silk,  and  the  outside 
ones,   or  the  first  spun    by  the   worm,   are  too  coarse  and  uneven 
for  reeling,  so  the  outer  coating  is  stripped  off  and  cast  aside  as 
waste. 

3.  As  the  silkworm  nears  the  completion  of  its  cocoon,  the  thread 
becomes  finer  and  finer,  insomuch  that  several  of  the  last  layers  are 
made  up  of  silk  too  fine  to  be  strong  enough  to  unwind,  so  that  after 
the  better  or  middle  layers  are  reeled  from  the  cocoon,  the  remaining 
part  is  discarded  as  useless  for  further  reeling. 


SILK   WASTES  37 

4.  Among  the  cocoons  there  are  some  which  are  altogether  un- 
suitable for  reeling,  included  among  which  are  the  pierced  cocoons. 
Although  of  no  use  for  reeling,  they  are  very  acceptable  to  the  silk 
waste  spinner. 

5.  During  the  process  of  reeling  from  the  cocoon  into  hanks  or 
skeins,  the  silk  sometimes  breaks,  and  in  consequence  there  is  waste 
made  by  the  attendant  in  finding  the  true  and  sound  thread. 

6.  Waste  is  produced  in  reeling  tsatlees  into  re-reels. 

7.  All  the  wastes  produced  in  the  throwster's  mill,  as  described 
fully  under  the  heading  "  Throwing." 

Practically  speaking,  the  various  wastes  are  divided  into  two 
general  classes :  gum  wastes  and  ordinary  wastes.  Gum  wastes, 
whether  Home,  European,  or  Eastern,  are  really  all  throwsters'  wastes, 
and  are  specially  adapted  for  the  making  of  yarns  for  lace,  sewings, 
and  wTeft  purposes. 

QUALITIES  OF  WASTES. — The  best-known  wastes  are  as  follows  : — 
/Steam  waste. — The  best  known  and  most  widely  used  silk  waste 
in  England  is  Canton  filature  waste,  better  known  as  steam  waste. 
It  is  not  a  gum  waste.     There  are  two  varieties,  and  several  grades 
of   each.     The   one  which   has   generally  found    most   favour  with 
spinners  is  the  "  opened "  wraste,  but,  owing  to  its  lending  itself  so 
easily  to  adulteration,  spinners  are  now  paying  more  attention  to  the 
"unopened"   quality.     Opened  steam  waste  is  the  unopened  waste 
pulled  out  by  the  natives,  wTho  work  among  it  with  their  fingers  and 
teeth,  opening  out  the  hard  knubs  which  have  been  formed  when  the 
wet  waste  has  been  thrown  down  by  the  reeler,  and  allowed  to  dry 
and  mat  together,  on  account  of  the  natural  gum  having  hardened, 
which  had  previously  been  softened  by  the  hot  water  in  the  basin 
attached  to  the  reeling  machine.     Owing  to  the  labour  difficulty  in 
China  it  is  becoming  more  and  more  important  that  spinners  accustom 
themselves  to  the  use  of  unopened  steam  waste.     There  are  really 
three  grades  of  steam  waste,  which  some  years  ago  were  known  as 
"Selected,"  No.    1,   and  No.    2.     But  year  by  year  the  Chinaman 
seems  to  have  got  the  better  of  the  European  silk  inspector,  and  has 
let  down  the  quality.     In  the  "  selected "  he  would  leave  a  certain 
amount  of  No.   1,  and  in  No.  1   he  would  put  the  No.  2,  until  at 
length  the  admixture  of  1's  and  2's  was  so  much  that  No.  2  as  a 
separate  grade  disappeared,  all  being  mixed  up  with  the  No.  1,  and 
passed  as  all  No.  1.     Naturally,  the  so-called  "  selected  "  got  a  greater 
percentage  of  No.  1,  so  that  in  time  the  European  shippers  decided 
to  work  up  a  better  grade  and  call  it  "Extra  selected."     This  latter 
came  forward  very  nicely  for  a  time  ;  but  gradually  the  Chinaman's 
cunning  got  the  better  of  the  inspector,  with  the  result  that  he  again 
lowered  the  quality  of  the  so-called  "extra  selected,"  and  therefore 
the  "selected."     This  process  was  again  repeated,  and  there  came  a 
grade  known  as  "  Extra  extra  selected "  steam  waste ;  but  this  was 


38  SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 

likewise  doomed  to  the  fate  of  the  former  changes,  and  to-day  there 
is  known  what  is  called  the  "  Extra  extra  extra  selected "  steam 
waste,  which  in  point  of  fact  is  to-day  not  so  good  as  the  old  well- 
known  "selected,"  and  the  "extra  extra  selected  "  is  a  mixture  of  the 
old  1's  and  2's.  The  deterioration  goes  on  year  after  year,  each 
succeeding  year  being  worse  than  the  preceding  one,  and  each  season 
showing  a  gradual  falling  away  from  the  standard  established  at  the 
commencement  of  the  season.  It  is  a  lamentable  state  of  affairs,  but 
so  far  the  Chinaman  seems  to  have  always  managed  to  get  the  better 
of  all  the  European  inspectors  ;  and  so  long  as  the  present  system  of 
buying  and  passing  of  the  waste  is  in  vogue  at  Canton,  so  long  will 
the  Chinaman  be  able  to  hoodwink  the  inspectors. 

Prisons  are  cocoons  with  varying  quantities  of  silk  upon  them 
which  has  been  slightly  pulled  loose.  Some  qualities  are  full  of  wormy 
matter,  but  all  are  well  liked  by  continental  spinners  for  schapping. 

Waddiny,  or  blaze,  which  is  also  used  almost  exclusively  on  the 
Continent,  is  the  first  silk  spun  by  the  worm — that  is,  the  silk  which  is 
wrapped  around  the  twigs  or  straws  and  leaves,  and  is  in  consequence 
full  of  such  vegetable  matters  when  sold  to  the  spinner.  It  is  very 
heavily  charged  with  gum,  and  consequently  loses  much  when  boiled 
off,  and  even  then  it  is  very  inferior  stuff.  Wadding  is  a  term  also 
applied  to  silk  which  has  been  used  as  a  packing  inside  the  China- 
man's coat  as  a  lining,  and  it  may  be  of  long  fibre  or  otherwise. 
Frisons  and  cocoons  are  types  which  may  come  from  all  silk-producing 
countries. 

Tussah  waste,  exported  from  Shanghai,  is  of  a  dark  brown  colour, 
and  is  usually  known  as  Newchwang  Tussah  waste  and  filature 
Tussah  waste.  They  are  marketed  in  two  grades,  viz.  No.  1  and 
No.  2,  which  are  packed  in  separate  bales.  Parcels  of  Newchwang 
are  generally  offered  as  60  per  cent,  of  No.  1  and  40  per  cent,  of 
No.  2,  and  the  filature  as  50  per  cent,  of  each,  written  respectively 
60/40  and  50/50.  There  is  also  what  is  known  as  tussah  throwster's 
waste,  which,  as  the  name  implies,  is  the  waste  made  during  the  pro- 
cess of  throwing  tussah  raws.  Besides  the  two  qualities  named 
above,  there  are  other  qualities  of  tussah  waste  shipped  from  China, 
but  these  two  represent  by  far  the  bulk. 

Nankin  Buttons  is  a  gum  waste  from  the  interior  of  China,  of 
exceptionally  good  white  colour  and  lustre.  The  bulk  of  it  is  long  in 
staple,  but  it  is  always  mixed  with  so-called  buttons,  which  are  really 
small  portions  of  silk  slightly  matted  together,  and,  a  worse  fault 
still,  sometimes  cut  into  half-an-inch  to  one-and-a-half-inch  lengths. 
This  waste  is  exported  from  Shanghai. 

China  wastes  are  from  various  sources,  chiefly  from  English, 
French,  and  Italian  throwsters.  They  are  all  long  in  staple.  China 
soaped  waste  is  from  English  and  Scotch  throwing  mills.  It  feels 
soft,  and  its  lustre  has  been  hidden  in  the  washing.  French  China 


SILK   WASTES  39 

is  always  bright,  and  not  being  weighted  with  soap  often  fetches  a 
little  more  per  pound  than  English  silk.  Italian  and  Swiss  wastes 
are  of  the  same  nature. 

Shanghai  ivaste  is  all  gum  waste,  not  quite  so  white  as  European 
silk,  and  harsher  in  feel.  It  is  classed  as  fine  white,  fine  yellow, 
coarse  white,  and  coarse  yellow.  In  the  fine  white  are  three  well- 
known  grades  :  Chintzah,  which  is  the  whitest  and  longest  in  staple ; 
Hangchow,  which  is  really  a  second  picking  or  sorting  over  of  the 
Chintzah  grade,  rather  inferior  in  colour,  not  so  long  in  staple,  and 
more  subject  to  twist  waste  and  foreign  matter;  and  the  ordinary 
fine  white,  which  is  variable  in  colour,  but  good  sound  waste.  The 
yellow  varieties  are  produced  in  much  smaller  quantities,  of  similar 
qualities,  but  usually  more  mixed  together,  which  really  makes  an 
inferior  sort  of  article.  Every  sort  is  sold  on  its  own  merits ;  some 
spinners  use  only  coarse  varieties,  and  others  only  fine. 

Shanghai  szechuen  (or  seychuen  or  sechuen)  is  a  yellow  waste, 
and  the  prefix  Shanghai  is  to  distinguish  it  from  Canton  waste  of 
similar  nature,  sold  as  Canton  szechuen.  All  Shanghai  wastes  were 
formerly  offered  as  1's,  2's,  and  3's.  Some  shippers  now  continue 
this,  but  the  No.  3  being  very  small  in  quantity  and  low  in  quality, 
parcels  are  often  offered  now  as  1's  and  2's.  As  the  No.  3  is,  how- 
ever, still  produced  in  the  East,  spinners  are  suspicious  that  in  many 
cases  it  is  judiciously  mixed  with  the  No.  2  portion  by  the  expert 
Chinese  packers.  However  that  may  be,  proportions  are  generally 
75%  257.  .  707.  30%  .  607.  307.  107.  .,,  , 
No.T  SO"'  NoTl'  NoT2 '  or  NSTT  No?  N5T3' 

grades  are  always  packed  separately. 

Indian  waste. — Of  all  the  wastes  used  by  spinners,  the  Indian 
wastes  (all  gum  wastes)  are  the  most  mixed  and  unreliable.  The 
colour  varies  from  grey  to  yellow,  but  there  is  by  far  the  larger  pro- 
portion of  yellow.  The  fibre  of  some  is  as  fine  and  clean  as  the  best 
China  and  Japan  silks,  whilst  others  are  coarser  than  the  punjum 
waste.  It  is  always  subject  to  an  admixture  of  bits  of  cotton,  twist, 
black  hairs,  string,  paper,  etc. 

Canton  gum  ivaste  is  very  similar  in  appearance  to  the  re-reel 
waste,  but  is  not  so  reliable,  and  is  very  often  more  mixed  with  black 
hairs,  cotton,  hemp,  etc.  No.  2  gum  is  now  a  very  scarce  article  in 
this  country,  spinners  finding  it  too  much  mixed  with  rubbish,  and 
hence  too  costly  in  picking,  etc. 

Re-reel  waste  is  a  Canton  gum  waste  produced  in  the  mills  where 
the  Canton  raws  are  re-reeled,  just  in  the  same  manner  as  Shanghai 
gum  in  the  more  northern  districts;  but  the  former  is  of  a  softer 
nature,  and  has  more  lustre — in  fact,  Cantons  are  the  most  lustrous 
of  all  silks,  but  are  of  a  creamy  shade.  The  silk  of  Canton  gum  and 
steam  waste  is  spun  by  the  same  genus  of  worm. 

Canton  szechuen  waste  is  a  yellow  gum  waste  with  a  good,  bright 


40  SILK   WASTE    SPINNING 

colour,  but  apt  to  be  greasy.  The  production  is  very  limited,  and  it 
comes  forward  in  little  lots  of  5,  10,  or  15  bales. 

Steam  punjums  are  allied  to  both  ,punjum  waste  and  to  steam 
waste.  They  are  said  to  possess  the  virtues  of  both — i.e.  they  yield 
well  and  have  the  colour  of  steam,  and  they  combine  the  lustre  of 
punjum. 

Punjum  has  peculiar  characteristics  of  its  own,  and  is  supposed 
by  many  people  to  be  the  most  lustrous  of  all  silks.  It  is  a  stringy 
waste  in  appearance,  and  loses  very  heavily  in  boiling  off — something 
like  50  per  cent.  It  is  reeled  from  cocoons,  a  number  of  ends  to- 
gether, and  put  into  book  form  very  similar  to  the  tsatlees,  as 
described  under  the  heading  "  Tsatlee  Keel "  in  "  Raw  Silk  " ;  but 
owing  to  the  admixture  of  rice  water,  in  reeling  process,  or  some  such 
substance,  the  threads  mat  together,  and  are  consequently  unwindable. 
In  this  form  the  waste  is  known  as  punjum  books,  which  are  divided 
into  grades  1's,  2's,  3's,  and  4's — 3's  and  4's  being  the  general  run  for 
English  spinners,  generally  half-and-half.  Punjum  waste  is  produced 
in  exactly  the  same  manner,  except  that  no  attempt  is  made  to  run  it 
into  a  moss;  but,  as  an  end  breaks  or  runs  off  during  reeling,  the 
waste  is  thrown  aside  in  a  rough,  tangled  state. 

China  curlies  are  a  well-known  waste  shipped  from  Shanghai, 
and  the  quality  and  appearance  are  more  allied  to  steam  waste  than 
to  any  other  variety  shipped  from  Canton.  It  is  a  greyish-white 
waste,  somewhat  harsh  to  the  feel.  The  name  "  curly "  is  given  to 
this  waste  on  account  of  its  being  so  full  of  little  patches  of  material 
matted  together,  which  have  a  certain  resemblance  to  a  curl  of  hair. 
The  waste  is  much  in  favour  both  in  this  country  and  on  the  Conti- 
nent, and,  as  the  crop  is  somewhat  limited,  many  times  the  whole  of 
the  output  is  contracted  for  at  the  opening  of  the  season.  It  is  a 
commodity  many  speculators  like  to  gamble  with,  the  result  being 
that  many  times,  when  the  whole  crop  has  been  cornered,  the  price  is 
many  pence  per  pound  over  and  above  its  value  as  compared  with 
other  classes  of  waste.  Like  most  Shanghai  wastes,  curlies  are  to  be 
had  in  three  grades,  but  the  No.  3  is  so  very  inferior  that  few  English 
spinners  can  afford  to  buy  it,  on  acc6unt  of  the  extra  expense  necessary 
in  picking  out  the  sticks,  string,  and  refuse,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
trouble  caused  in  after  processes  by  some  of  these  objects  having 
escaped  the  pickers  in  the  first  instance.  Generally  speaking,  English 
spinners  buy  only  the  No.  1's,  finding  even  the  No.  2's  too  much 
trouble  in  working ;  but  there  are  shippers  who  import  the  propor- 
tions 60  per  cent.  No.  1,  30  per  cent.  No.  2,  and  10  per  cent.  No.  3, 
written  60/30/10.  Curlies  are  generally  shipped  under  a  chop  mark, 
the  favourite  being  the  "Yellow  Pony"  (or  Peony),  whilst  such 
chops  as  the  "  Double  Fighting  Cock  "  and  the  ".Gold  Lion "  are 
fairly  well  known.  It  must  not  be  taken  that  all  curlies  are  shipped 
under  a  chop  mark,  nor  even  that  the  best  curlies  have  a  particular 


SILK   WASTES  41 

name  or  trade  mark.  Some  arrivals  with  no  chop  mark  whatever 
are  quite  equal  to  any  of  the  "  Yellow  Pony  "  chop ;  but,  as  a  general 
rule,  spinners  buying  "  to  arrive  "  wish  to  have  the  chop  stipulated  at 
the  time  of  purchase,  as  a  kind  of  semi-guarantee  of  quality,  as  the 
various  wastes  from  the  different  filatures  have  a  certain  reputation,  j 

Shanghai  long  ivastes  are  the  most  expensive  wastes  shipped  from 
that  port.  They  are  to  be  had  from  various  inland  districts,  and 
are  known  under  the  different  names  of  such  places,  though  there  is 
a  great  similarity  in  appearance  and  not  much  difference  in  their 
qualities  and  yields.  They  have  very  much  the  appearance  of  knubs, 
but  are  tapey  and  very  long.  They  yield  exceedingly  well,  and  are 
of  a  good  light  colour.  The  annual  production  is  comparatively 
small,  and  very  few  spinners  can  use  them  to  advantage,  on  account 
of  their  high  price.  For  particular  special  yarns  where  strength  and 
evenness  of  thread  are  absolutely  essential,  Shanghai  long  waste  is 
used  to  advantage. 

Japan  wastes. — The  best-known  waste  shipped  from  Yokohama 
is  the  Kikai  Kibizzo,  or  Japan  curlies.  In  appearance  there  is  not 
much  difference  between  this  waste  and  China  curlies,  except  that  the 
former  is  generally  of  a  better  colour,  and  contains  curls  of  larger 
size,  longer  staple,  and  consequently  yields  better.  Japan  wastes  are 
more  in  request  for  continental  spinners  than  for  England,  being 
well  suited  for  the  schapping  in  vogue  there.  Just  like  the  China 
curlies,  Kikai  Kibizzo  is  shipped  in  three  grades,  but  the  principal 
buying  for  this  country  is  for  No.  1's  alone,  although  at  times  parcels 
60/30/10  are  freely  offered. 

Iwashiro  Noshi  is  another  waste  which  is  fairly  well  known  here  by 
the  spinners  who  use  the  very  best  class  of  wastes.  What  the  Shanghai 
long  waste  is  to  Shanghai,  so  is  Iwashiro  Noshi  to  Japan.  They  are 
very  similar,  except  that  the  latter  is  a  better  colour,  and  just  as 
Kikai  Kibizzo  will  fetch  a  better  price  than  China  curlies,  so  is 
Iwashiro  Noshi  more  valuable  than  Shanghai  long  waste.  The  pro- 
duction is  very  limited. 

Noshito  Joshiu  or  Tamas  is  practically  the  lowest  class  of  Japan 
waste  which  is  shipped  for  consumption  in  England  for  the  ordinary 
spinner,  but  there  are  many  lower  varieties  from  Japan  which  are 
well  suited  for  continental  schappe  spinners.  Tamas  are  a  stringy 
waste,  not  very  good  colour,  and  are  subject  to  a  certain  amount  of 
refuse.  They  are  generally  shipped  in  proportion  60/30/10. 

Before  passing  on  to  European  wastes,  some  details  of  the  buying, 
inspecting,  shipping,  and  landing  of  wastes  from  the  East  will  not  be 
without  interest. 

Buying. — As  in  most  textile  trades,  so  in  the  silk  spinning  in- 
dustry, spinners  must  anticipate  their  requirements  to  a  certain 
extent,  and  buy  "to  arrive,"  or  "futures."  This  latter  term  is, 
however,  seldom  made  use  of  in  the  silk  trade.  Comparatively 


42  SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 

speaking,  very  little  waste  is  sent  over  here  on  account  of  the  shippers, 
most  of  them  preferring  to  buy  against  orders  from  brokers  and 
merchants.  The  buying  "  to  arrive  "  is  done  by  the  spinners  through 
merchant  brokers,  who  transmit  the  offers  to  Shanghai,  Canton,  or 
Yokohama,  according  to  the  kind  of  waste  required ;  and  the  matter 
of  quality  is  either  fixed  on  certain  standards  which  the  merchant 
shows,  or  the  spinner  stipulates  that  it  be  equal  to  a  certain  shipment 
already  had.  In  the  absence  of  standards,  the  merchant  undertakes 
to  deliver  the  "  season's  average  " — or,  in  other  words,  he  contracts 
that  his  waste  will  be  as  good  as  the  season  affords,  all  due  care  being 
taken  at  the  embarkation  port  that  inferior  waste  is  not  shipped. 

Terms. — The  spinner  buys  on  the  "  East  India  Company's  Terms  " 
— generally  written  "Company's  Terms."  It  is  understood,  unless 
otherwise  stipulated  at  the  time  of  purchase,  that  the  waste  will  be 
shipped  from  the  port  within  four  or  six  weeks  after  the  placing  of 
the  order. 

Inspecting. — The  systems  in  vogue  for  inspecting  at  Canton, 
Shanghai,  and  Yokohama  are  very  different,  and  much  could  be  done 
in  this  respect  to  ensure  better  qualities  and  more  uniformity  in  ship- 
ment, particularly  so  from  Canton.  In  this  latter  place  the  shipper 
buys,  say,  a  parcel  of  50  bales  of  waste  from  a  native  dealer,  who 
comes  forward  and  tenders  50  bales  already  made  up.  The  European 
inspector  then  picks  out  of  the  lot,  wherever  he  may  think  fit,  3,  4, 
or  5  bales,  and  has  them  opened,  and  after  examining  them  passes 
or  rejects  the  parcel.  If  the  lot  is  rejected,  the  Chinaman  brings  a 
further  50,  which  are  subject  to  the  same  process,  and  so  on  until  he 
has  satisfied  the  inspector.  It  will  be  at  once  seen  by  one  in  the 
trade  that  this  is  a  very  lax  method,  for  John  Chinaman  has  these 
bales  to  sell,  and  sell  them  he  will.  If  they  are  rejected  by  one 
inspector,  he  will  tender  them  to  another,  in  the  hope  that  he  may  be 
lucky  or  unlucky  enough  to  cause  good  bales  out  of  the  run  to  be 
opened,  and  so  pass  the  lot.  Very  often  the  bales  are  made  up  in 
such  a  way  that  the  outer  coating  of  the  layers  of  which  the  bales 
are  made  up  are  composed  of  really  good  silk,  whilst  the  inside  is 
cunningly  made  up  of  inferior  waste.  This  is  a  common  fault  of 
Canton  wastes  of  all  descriptions.  The  only  remedy  seems  to  be  that 
the  waste  be  delivered  in  bulk  to  the  shippers'  go-downs,  to  be  in- 
spected by  them  in  bulk,  and  packed  by  them  just  as  is  done  in 
Shanghai  and  Yokohama,  from  which  ports  the  waste  is  far  more 
uniform  and  more  reliable.  The  majority  of  the  shippers  at  Canton 
say  that  it  is  impossible  to  do  this  in  the  case  of  Canton  wastes, 
because  they  have  not  room  in  the  European  quarters  to  make  go- 
downs  in  which  to  inspect  the  wastes. 

Packing  and  shipping. — At  Canton  the  wastes  are  all  packed  in 
small  bales  of  one  picul  each  (a  picul  is  133£lb.),  without  press- 
packing,  but  they  are  well  bound  with  cane,  and  the  wrapping  is 


SILK   WASTES  43 

matting.  Shanghai  wastes,  which  are  packed  under  European  super- 
vision and  in  the  shippers'  own  go-downs,  are  made  up  in  three-picul 
bales,  and  are  press-packed.  The  Japan  bales  are  very  cumbersome, 
being  packed  similar  to  the  Canton  bales,  except  that  instead  of  one- 
picul  bales  they  come  over  in  three-picul  bales.  Some  Japan  bales 
are,  however,  press-packed  like  the  Shanghai  bales.  The  shipping  is, 
of  course,  undertaken  by  the  European  shippers  out  in  the  East,  and, 
generally  speaking,  the  documents  covering  the  shipments  are  passed 
through  the  Eastern  banks  with  a  bill  at  four,  five,  or  six  months' 
sight,  to  be  accepted  here  by  the  merchant  and  returned  to  the  bank, 
which  holds  the  waste  until  the  bill  is  retired,  when  the  merchant 
gets  the  necessary  release  order. 

Landiny. — On  arrival  in  London,  the  waste  is  at  once  taken  in 
hand  by  the  Dock  Company  or  wharfingers,  and,  immediately  it  is 
lauded,  the  gross  weights  of  each  bale  are  carefully  taken,  and  a 
certain  number  of  each  parcel  tared,  and  the  average  tare  of  those 
taken  is  reckoned  on  the  wrhole  parcel.  No.  \  or  J  Ib.  are  reckoned  : 
supposing  the  average  tare  is  8J,  8J,  or  8|  Ib.,  the  tare  allowed  is 
9  Ib.  per  bale,  and  any  bale  weighing,  say,  129J  Ib.  gross,  even  though 
the  average  tare  were  8J  Ib.,  would  only  be  chargeable  120  Ib.  net. 
When  the  bales  have  been  landed,  lotted,  and  examined  for  damage, 
dock  samples  are  drawn  from  every  fifth  or  tenth  bale  according  to 
request,  and  sent  down  to  the  buyer,  and  on  receipt  of  these  he  must 
decide  whether  the  quality  is  up  to  the  standard  on  wThich  he  bought. 
Once  having  passed  these  impartial  dock  samples,  he  is  held  to  have 
passed  the  waste,  and  has  no  claim  for  inferiority  should  he  be  dis- 
appointed with  the  waste  when  the  bulk  is  delivered  at  his  mill, 
unless  he  can  prove  some  very  flagrant  case  of  false  packing,  and  even 
then  he  must  trust  to  the  merchant  from  wrhom  he  bought. 

European  wastes. — Little  need  be  said  about  the  various  qualities 
of  these  wastes,  as  all  have  very  similar  characteristics,  and  are 
practically,  with  the  exception  of  the  French  and  Italian  knubs,  the 
products  of  the  silk-throwing  mills,  as  described  under  the  heading 
"  Throwing."  Knubs,  however,  are  the  long  wastes  produced  in  the 
filatures  where  the  raw  silk  is  wound  from  the  cocoon,  and  have  the 
same  appearance  and  characteristics  as  the  Shanghai  long  waste  and 
Iwashiro  Noshi,  except  that  they  are  finer  and  of  a  more  "  classical " 
nature.  These  knubs  are  particularly  in  request  by  the  continental 
spinners. 

Of  the  many  varieties  of  European  wastes,  the  following  are  the 
best  known :  French  China,  Swiss  China,  Italian  China,  French 
mixed,  Piedmont,  and  Spanish  waste.  French  China,  as  its  name  im- 
plies, is  the  waste  produced  in  the  French  throwing  mills  working  China 
raw  silk.  Swiss  China  is  the  same  produced  in  Switzerland  ;  Italian 
China  the  same  produced  in  Italy.  French  mixed  is  grey  and  yellow 
waste  from  the  throwing  mills,  and  is  composed  of  Bengal,  Canton, 


44  SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 

and  Japan,  as  well  as  Italian  and  French  wastes.  It  is  somewhat 
subject  to  cotton,  but  is  quite  a  favourite  gum  waste.  Piedmont 
waste,  as  the  name  implies,  is  the  fine  Italian  yellow  waste  made  in 
the  throwing  mills  producing  organzines  and  trams  from  Piedmont 
raw  silk.  It  is  one  of  the  most  expensive  yellow  w^astes,  yielding  very 
well,  and  producing  a  strong,  lustrous  yarn  of  a  very  elastic  nature. 

Terms. — These  European  wastes  are  not  bought  on  what  are  known 
as  "  Company's  Terms,"  but  in  the  ordinary  way  of  trade,  the  spinner 
getting  credit,  or  at  least  getting  the  silk  delivered  before  he  pays  for 
it,  contrary  to  the  custom  with  Eastern  wastes.  In  this  way  he  can 
ascertain,  on  the  arrival  of  the  bulk,  whether  it  is  up  to  sample  or 
not.  There  are  faults,  however,  which  cannot  easily  be  detected  until 
the  waste  has  been  boiled  or  otherwise  treated,  so  if  he  has  any 
doubts  about  it  at  all,  the  spinner,  immediately  on  arrival,  takes  steps 
to  ascertain  if  it  is  free  from  twist  or  crape — i.e.  hard  twisted 
threads. 

Given  these  brief  notes  on  a  few  of  the  many  varieties  of  silk 
waste,  from  which  it  will  have  been  noted  that  the  colour,  the 
diameter  of  thread,  and  the  packing  are  so  varied  as  delivered  to  the 
spinner,  and  being  also  a  much  tangled  mass  of  all  lengths  of  fibre — 
some  bales  hard  press-packed  and  other  qualities  loosely  packed — it 
will  be  understood  that  preparatory  to  boiling  or  schapping — i.e. 
degumming — a  certain  amount  of  opening,  sorting,  and  mixing  will 
be  absolutely  necessary. 


CHAPTER    V 

THE  PREPARATION  OF  SILK  WASTE  FOR  DEGUMMING 

OPENING  BALES. — All  French,  Swiss,  Italian,  and  English  silks  are 
loosely  packed,  fine  and  coarse  generally  separate,  so  that  in  an 
ordinary  way  one  would  empty  all  the  bags  of  the  same  quality  and 
make  a  stack  of  waste  of  the  same.  Should  it  be  necessary  to  mix 
white  and.  yellow  together,  then  a  layer  of  white  would  be  spread  on 
the  floor,  and  then  a  layer  of  yellow  spread  over  this,  in  whatever  pro- 
portion the  spinner  had  decided  the  mixing  should  contain.  The  whiter 
the  yarn  required,  the  more  white  waste  would  be  necessary  in 
the  mixing,  and  vice  versd.  This  process  would  be  repeated  until  the 
whole  of  the  waste  required  to  complete  the  mixing  had  been  added 
to  the  stack.  In  taking  from  this  stack  for  boiling,  care  would  have 
to  be  taken  to  see  that  the  silk  was  most  carefully  drawn  from  the 
face  of  the  bulk  in  even  proportions  from  top  to  bottom,  to  ensure 
uniformity  of  colour  in  the  subsequent  processes.  There  is  an  alterna- 
tive and  better  method  to  the  above,  which  is  adopted  by  some 
spinners.  Instead  of  mixing  the  white  and  yellow  wastes  whilst  in 
the  gum  state,  each  colour  is  boiled  off  separately,  and  then  the  boiled 
silk  waste  is  put  into  the  layers  as  described. 

Steam  wastes  and  most  filature-produced  wastes  are  fairly  loose, 
and  one-picul  bales  can  either  be  taken  singly  and  boiled  entire,  or 
a  certain  weight  boiled,  taking  each  bale  just  as  it  comes;  or  the 
waste  can  be  sorted — that  is,  each  layer  of  silk  can  be  separated,  the 
good  waste  taken  off  and  put  on  one  side,  and  the  inside  of  the  layer 
or  bad  waste  put  in  another  place,  so  that  each  quality  can  be  boiled 
separately. 

Press-packed  bales  of  gum  waste  from  Shanghai  and  wastes 
from  Japan  are  very  troublesome,  Shanghai  wastes  particularly  so. 
After  taring  these  bales,  they  are  laid  on  the  floor  edge  up  (Fig.  16), 
wooden  wedges  are  driven  betwixt  the  layers  of  silk,  and  they  are 
thus  split  asunder.  The  most  difficult  task  now  is  to  break  up  the 
layers,  pickaxes  being  resorted  to  •  and  when  by  this  means  the 
operator  has  loosened  some  portion  of  silk,  he  pulls  it  asunder  with 
his  hands,  but  even  those  portions  taken  off  are  very  often  so  hard 
and  clotted  together  that  they  have  to  be  heckled  open.  A  number 

45 


46 


SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 


of  strong  coarse  pins,  each,  say,  3  in.  long  and  J  in.  thick  at  the 
root,  are  fixed  into  a  metal  strip,  say,  12  in.  long  and  4  in.  broad,  the 
pins  being  set  diagonally  as  in  Fig.  17,  in  which  A  shows  them  in 
plan.  This  strip  is  securely  fastened  to  a  pillar  or  projected  from  the 
wall. 


FIG.  16.  —Bale  splitting. 

The  attendant  picks  up  a  portion  of  waste  in  his  hands  and  hits 
it  forcibly  on  the  pins,  which  hold  it,  and  he  then  pulls  from  the  pins 
or  heckles  in  a  slightly  downward  direction,  so  loosening  the  matted 
portions  of  silk.  The  whole  process  is  a  primitive  and  tedious  one ; 


FIG.  17. — Waste  opener. 

but  as  only  a  few  spinners  use  such  wastes,  it  is  not  usual  to  employ 
a  machine  for  the  purpose.  Still,  the  one  illustrated  in  Figs.  18  and 
19  is  worth,  consideration.  The  machine  consists  of  a  raised  grid, 
shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  19,  composed  of  cross  bars  C  and  D,  with 
strong  plates  G  fixed  to  each  at  right  angles.  A  whole  bale  B  is  put 


SILK  WASTE  PREPARATION  FOR  DEGUMMING     47 


upon  this  grid.  Underneath  and  between  each  pair  of  plates  or  bars, 
G,  a  series  of  strong  teeth  T  (Fig.  18)  are  affixed,  sliding  on  racks  R, 
which  are  propelled  from  side  to  side  of  the  bale  by  means  of  worms 
W.  These  teeth  scrape  a  portion  of  silk  from  the  bale  and  carry  it 


FIG.  18. — Bale  opener  (side  elevation). 

to  the  side  S,  when,  before  the  bar  recedes,  a  fork  F  descends  be- 
tween each  pair  of  bars  G,  behind  the  waste  which  is  adhering  to  the 
pins,  and,  when  the  bars  recede,  the  fork  prevents  this  waste  returning 
and  clears  the  pins,  which  recede  preparatory  for  another  forward 
motion. 


FIG.  19. — Bale  opener  (plan). 

After  the  opening  of  the  waste,  the  silk  in  English  mills  is 
generally  put  into  bags  preparatory  to  degumming. 

Gum. — There  are  two  ways  in  which  the  silk  waste  is  freed,  or 
partially  freed,  of  its  natural  gum  or  sericin.  The  English  method, 
by  which  all  the  gum  is  discharged,  is  known  as  "boiling"  or 
"discharging."  The  continental  process,  by  which  only  a  certain 


48  SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 

percentage  of  gum  is  got  rid  of,  is  termed  "schapping."  The  former, 
as  the  name  implies,  is  the  process  adopted  for  removing  all  the  gum 
by  boiling.  In  the  second  method  the  gum  is  loosened  by  a  process 
of  fermentation,  and  only  a  portion  removed  according  to  requirements. 
The  process  has  been  carried  to  such  perfection  that  as  much  as  15 
per  cent,  or  as  little  as  2  per  cent,  of  gum  can  be  left  on  the  fibre. 

Water. — No  matter  which  process  is  adopted,  the  first  and  most 
important  question  is  the  water  available.  This  should  be  very  soft, 
and  free  from  iron  and  carbonates  and  silicates  of  lime.  The  objections 
to  these  compounds  are  on  account  of  the  tendency,  in  the  case  of  the 
iron,  to  discolour  the  silk,  and  the  limes  decompose  the  soap  which 
may  be  used,  as  the  alkali  in  the  soap  unites  with  the  carbonic  and 
sulphuric  acids  of  the  limes,  thus  leaving  the  fatty  matter  of  the  soap 
free  to  combine  with  the  lime,  and  form  an  insoluble  pasty,  greasy 
substance  which  has  no  washing  or  cleansing  properties.  In  fact,  it 
adheres  to  the  fibre,  and  makes  the  gum  and  dirt  more  difficult  to 
remove ;  and  when  the  silk  is  taken  from  the  water,  and  dried,  the 
precipitate  is  hardened  in  the  thread,  causing  it  to  feel  gritty  and  to 
be  dull  in  appearance.  The  gritty  substance  is  even  carried  forward 


FIG.  20. — Copper  ladle. 

through  several  processes,  damaging  drawing  rollers  and  leathers.  The 
harder  the  water  the  more  soap  is  necessary ;  so  it  is  well  worth  the 
attention  of  the  silk  spinner  to  take  the  trouble  to  have  his  water 
carefully  analysed,  and  if  found  hard  to  take  steps  to  soften  it. 

Water  softening. — The  most  common  method  adopted  is  the  use 
of  carbonate  of  soda,  about  1  Ib.  of  which  is  taken  to  every  275 
gallons  of  water,  which  water  is  boiled,  and  kept  boiling  as  long  as 
the  lime  which  is  formed  continues  to  rise  to  the  surface.  This  lime 
must  be  skimmed  off,  and  for  this  purpose  a  shallow  copper  ladle  is 
found  useful  (Fig.  20). 

Caustic  soda  is  also  another  compound  which  can  be  used,  but  as 
it  has  such  a  strong  affinity  for  the  gum  on  the  silk,  and  will  even 
dissolve  silk  fibre  itself,  it  cannot  be  too  carefully  used.  A  half-tea- 
spoonful  of  caustic  soda  to  one  gallon  of  water  is  sufficient  to  soften 
the  hardest  water  ;  but,  on  account  of  its  severe  action  on  the  silk  fibre, 
it  is  expedient  to  test  the  water  in  the  following  manner.  To  a  gallon 
of  the  water  to  be  tested  add  a  small  known  quantity  of  caustic  soda, 
and  boil  to  help  precipitation  ;  continue  adding  small  known  quantities 
of  caustic  soda,  and  boil  until  all  the  lime  is  precipitated.  In  this  way 


SILK  WASTE  PREPARATION  FOR  DEGUMMING     49 

it  can  be  ascertained  what  proportion  of  caustic  soda  is  necessary  to 
precipitate  all  the  lime  in  a  gallon  of  the  water  to  be  used,  and  the  bulk 
can  be  treated  accordingly.  Water  can  be  softened  to  a  large  extent  by 
boiling  before  using,  but,  as  this  would  take  time,  a  good  method  is  to 
erect  a  large  wooden  tank,  the  bottom  about  six  feet  from  the  ground. 
Inside  the  tank  must  be  a  coil  of  steam  piping,  by  means  of  which 
the  water  is  heated  to  boiling  point.  It  is  essential  that  the  water 
should  have  been  boiled  before  running  it  off  into  the  tubs  or  cisterns 
in  which  the  silk  is  to  be  discharged.  Where  feasible,  some  of  the 
waste  steam  can  be  returned  to  the  tank. 

Soap. — The  question  of  soft  water  having  been  determined,  the 
next  matter  which  requires  the  spinner's  attention  is  the  soap  to  be 
used.  Alkalies  eat  into  the  silk  fibre  and  render  it  tender  and  brittle  ; 
so,  to  minimise  this  effect,  it  is  necessary  to  soften  the  effect  of  the 
alkali  somewhat,  and  this  is  best  done  by  means  of  the  fatty  matters 
contained  in  a  white  mild  curd  soap. 

A  soft  soap  will  degum  easily  and  without  damage  to  the  fibre, 
but  the  potash  in  the  soap  appears  to  have  a  discolouring  effect  on 
white  silks.  The  oily  nature  of  the  soap  causes  it  to  adhere  closely 
to  the  silk,  sometimes  rendering  it  greasy  and  cloggy  and  difficult  to 
work  in  after  processes.  On  coarse,  harsh  silk,  like  tussah,  such  a 
soap  can  be  used  to  advantage,  as  it  improves  the  feel  of  the  silk. 
A  good  curd  soap  is  expensive,  and  in  these  times  of  cutting  prices  it 
is  a  great  temptation  to  endeavour  to  save  money  by  buying  a  cheap 
and  consequently  inferior  article.  This  is  a  game  of  "penny  wise, 
pound  foolish."  The  soap  may  appear  to  degum  all  right,  the  silk 
may  go  through  its  next  process  fairly  well,  and  the  drawing  over- 
looker only  finds  out  something  is  wrong  when  his  waste  from  slivers 
and  fly  increases  very  materially.  The  silk  when  in  that  department 
has  increased  in  cost  from  its  first  (purchased)  price  by  four  or  five 
times,  being  worth  from  4s.  to  8s.  per  pound,  and  sometimes  more ; 
and  as  soap  of  first-class  quality  is  2Jd.  to  3d.  per  pound,  and  poor 
soap  costs  IJd.  to  2d.  per  pound,  the  saving  in  first  cost  is  soon  lost, 
with  heavy  interest,  if  silk  is  lost  in  waste  after  it  has  been  through 
one  or  two  processes.  A  good  white  curd  soap  should  show  at  least 

64  per  cent,  of  fatty  matters,  with  about 
25       ,,  water,  and 

11       ,,  alkalies,  etc. 

The  greater  the  percentage  of  fatty  matter,  the  less  soap  will  be 
required  for  any  quality  of  silk ;  and  as  it  is  the  fatty  matter  which 
is  the  costliest  ingredient  in  soap,  it  is  obvious  that  adulteration 
would  mean  a  less  percentage  of  fat,  which  means  more  soap  will  be 
needed  for  a  specific  quantity  of  silk.  Then,  again,  the  nature  of 
most  adulterations  is  particularly  injurious  to  silk,  and  very  few  more 
so  than  silicate  of  soda,  which,  whilst  assisting  materially  in  bleaching 
4 


5° 


SILK   WASTE    SPINNING 


silk,  will  at  the  same  time  dull  it,  make  it  feel  harsh,  and  cause  it  to 
work  short  in  dressing  frames.  The  sand  or  powdered  quartz  in 
silicate  of  soda  appears  to  stick  to  the  silk  fibre  in  spite  of  all  attempts 
to  wash  it  off,  and  although  the  particles  are  most  minute  they  can, 
and  do,  cut  the  silk  very  much.  The  presence  of  this  injurious  mix- 
ture can  often  be  detected  by  taking  a  portion  of  boiled  silk,  drying 
it  thoroughly,  and  then  shaking  it  well,  when  a  white  powder  will 


FIG.  21.— Soap  vat. 

fall  from  it,  which  on  examination  shows  hard  particles  and  is  quite 
gritty  to  the  touch.  Much  of  it  will  not  shake  off,  and  is  carried 
forward  through  the  various  following  processes,  and  acts  exactly  in 
the  same  manner  as  lime  soap.  A  cheap  soap  of  course  alwa}rs  con- 
tains a  large  percentage  of  water,  which  commodity  the  spinner  is 
quite  well  able  to  put  in  for  himself,  without  paying  so  much  for  it 
as  when  sold  as  soap. 

For  the  sake  of  economy  many  experiments  have  been  made,  with 
a   view  to  degumming  by  means  of  caustic  soda  or  caustic  potash 


SILK  WASTE  PREPARATION  FOR  DEGUMMING      51 

alone,  used  in  small  quantities  in  cold  or  lukewarm  water,  which 
mixture  softens  the  gum,  which  is  then  washed  off  with  clean  water 
or  soap  and  water.  These  experiments  have  not,  however,  been  found 
satisfactory,  because  the  caustics  are  so  strong  that  when  they  have 
loosened  the  gum,  so  that  it  wrill  easily  wash  off,  they  have  also 
attacked  the  fibre  itself  and  burned  it  considerably.  Various  means 
of  counteracting  the  action  of  the  caustic  on  the  fibre  have  been 
tested,  and  some  perfected,  in  the  chemist's  laboratory,  but  none  have 
been  put  to  a  practical  use  in  England. 

Some  spinners  make  their  own  soap,  which  is  now  greatly  facili- 
tated by  their  being  able  to  purchase  pure  rendered  tallow  and  pure 
caustic  soda,  the  latter  in  small  tins.  The  process  is  known  as  the 
"  cold  "  process.  A  tub  is  erected  (Fig.  21)  and  supported  on  brick 
stands  A.  Inside  the  tub  is  placed  a  steampipe  B,  coiled  round  the 
bottom.  At  the  point  C  is  fixed  a  tap  D,  of  large  diameter,  to  serve 
as  an  outlet.  To  120  Ib.  of  tallow  (which  must  be  free  from  salt) 
placed  in  the  tub,  apply  gentle  heat  by  means  of  the  steampipes  until 
the  tallow  is  thoroughly  melted.  Allow  it  then  to  cool  to  a  tem- 
perature of  120°  F.,  and  add  very  gradually  85  Ib.  of  lye  (the  com- 
position of  which  is  given  below),  and  stir  well  until  a  complete  union 
of  the  alkali  and  fatty  matter  is  effected.  This  can  be  discerned  by 
the  smooth  appearance  of  the  mixture.  The  composition  of  the  lye 
is  17  Ib.  of  caustic  soda  with  68  Ib.  of  cold  water,  which  are  mixed 
well  in  an  earthen  vessel  until  the  soda  is  all  dissolved.  The  tem- 
perature at  which  it  is  ready  for  use  is  80°  F.  When  the  lye  and  the 
tallow  are  thoroughly  mixed,  the  tap  D  is  opened  and  the  liquid  run 
into  the  box  E.  This  box  may  be  made  of  wood  or  iron,  and  it  is  so 
made  that  by  loosening  the  bolts  at  F  the  sides  fall  away  to  allow 
proper  cutting  of  the  soap. 

Before  running  in  the  molten  mass,  the  box  should  be  lined  with 
wet  calico.  The  top  is  then  well  covered  over  with  woollen  cloths  or 
sheepskins,  and  left  alone  for  three  days,  during  which  time  the 
mixture  slowly  turns  to  soap.  The  quantities  of  material  here  given 
make  about  200  Ib.  of  good  white  curd  soap.  This  class  of  soap  is 
apt  to  contain  more  alkali  than  those  made  by  the  hot  boiling  pro- 
cess, but  it  is  a  real  good  article,  and  when  carefully  made  is  good 
enough  for  any  silk  spinner-;  and  he  knows,  then,  that  it  does  not 
contain  such  adulterations  as  silicate  of  soda,  alum,  acetate  of  lead, 
lime,  chalk,  bone  ash,  pipeclay,  sand,  sugar,  starch,  glue,  etc.,  which 
are  used  to  cheapen  some  so-called  white  curd  soaps. 

The  stirring  or  mixing  of  the  liquid  in  the  tub  can  be  done  by 
means  of  the  apparatus  shown  in  Fig.  22.  A  series  of  arms  (not 
shown  in  the  drawing)  project  from  the  side  of  the  tub  inside;  a 
vertical  shaft  B,  also  furnished  with  projecting  arms  A,  is  fixed  by 
footstep  to  the  bottom,  and  by  a  journal  fixed  to  the  crosspiece  G 
(see  Fig.  21)  which  is  placed  over  the  tub.  The  bevel  wheels  affixed 


SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 


on  vertical  and  horizontal  shafts,  respectively  B  and  H,  are  set  in 
motion  by  driving  pulleys  K,  and  the  stirring  given  to  the  mixture  is 
so  complete  that  in  a  short  time  the  fatty  matter  is  brought  into 
contact  with  the  alkaline  lye,  and  so  saponification  takes  place. 
About  three  hours'  stirring  is  necessary.  The  stirrer  is  put  in  and 
out  of  position,  as  required,  and  is  easily  fixed  by  means  of  bolts  at 
M,  M,  through  the  tub  and  brackets  P,  P. 


FIG.  22.— Soap  mixer. 

At  the  expiration  of  three  days  the  soap  is  ready  for  cutting. 
This  is  done  by  means  of  a  wire  drawn  across  the  block  of  soap  which 
is  laid  ready  for  cutting  operation  by  dropping  the  box  ends  and 
sides  flat.  The  bars  of  soap  must  then  be  stored  for  about  a  month 
before  using. 


CHAPTEE   VI 
SILK  WASTE  DEGUMMING 

^CHAPPING. — If  gum  silk,  or  so-called  silk  waste,  is  piled  in  a 
heap  in  a  clamp  warm  place,  and  kept  constantly  moist,  the  gum 
will  begin  to  ferment  and  loosen.  By  continually  turning  over  the 
pile  all  portions  of  the  heap  are  properly  softened,  but  the  process 


FIG.  23.— Schapping  vat. 

takes  several  days,  much  depending  on  the  quality  of  the  silk  being 
treated.  The  method  is  too  long  and  the  stench  from  the  fermenting 
matter  too  great  to  allow  of  such  being  much  practised  in  England ; 
and  on  the  Continent,  where  schapping  is  in  vogue,  a  much  quicker 
method  is  adopted  now.  A  cistern  of  wood  (Fig.  23),  measuring 
about  6  ft.  in  depth  and  5  ft.  diameter,  is  fitted  inside  with  a  wooden 
cage  (shown  by  dotted  lines  A),  allowing  4  in.  space  B  between  the 
outside  measurements  of  the  one  and  inside  of  the  other.  The  top  of 
the  inner  cage  is  about  15  in.  below  the  height  of  the  outer  cistern 

53 


54  SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 

The  former  is  perforated  bottom  and  sides  with  1  in.  holes,  about  4 
in.  apart,  to  allow  water  to  circulate  freely  from  outer  to  inner  cage. 
A  steampipe  is  fixed  to  enable  the  water  to  be  kept  at  the  required 
temperature.  The  water  for  use  must  be  well  softened,  and  it  is  well 
that  it  should  have  been  boiled.  When  the  cistern  is  empty,  about 
3Q  lb.  of  silk  is  laid  in  the  inside  cage ;  some  water  is  then  run  in, 
and  the  silk  well  beaten  down  until  it  is  thoroughly  saturated.  Another 
30  lb.  of  silk  is  then  placed  in,  well  trodden  down,  saturated  with 
water,  and  the  process  repeated  until  the  inner  cage  is  full.  Some 
boards  are  then  placed  on  the  silk,  and  heavy  weights  placed  on  them 
to  hold  down  the  silk,  which  is  disposed  to  swell  and  to  rise  out  of 
the  water.  When  well  weighted  down  the  cistern  is  filled  up  with 
water  to  8  or  10  in.  above  the  boards,  and  the  temperature  kept  at 
about  140°  F.  until  the  operation  is  complete.  This  will  take  from 
two  to  six  days,  according  to  the  quality  of  silk  under  treatment. 
At  the  expiration  of  two  days  a  string  of  silk  is  taken  out  and  rubbed 
well  between  finger  and  thumb  nail  and  then  broken,  and  if  the  silk 
shows  fine  fibres  at  the  broken  ends  it  is  soft  enough,  or  degummed 
sufficiently,  for  the  next  process.  If,  on  the  contrary,  hard  ends  show, 
the  silk  is  kept  in  the  cistern  longer,  and  the  test  made  every  day 
until  it  is  softened  enough.  The  silk  is  then  taken  out  and  washed 
well  with  clean  hot  water  or  hot  water  and  soap.  Before  washing,  it 
is  sometimes  advisable  to  put  it  into  a  hydro  extractor  for  the  purpose 
of  getting  out  as  much  dirty  and  gummy  liquor  as  possible.  After- 
wards the  silk  is  placed  into  shallow  wooden  tanks  with  water  heated 
to  about  180°  F.,  and  kept  at  this  temperature  for  some  time;  it  is 
knocked  about  well  in  the  water  so  that  the  loose  gum  is  washed  off. 
Or  the  silk  is  placed  in  shallow  circular  machines  (Fig.  24)  which  are 
revolved  slowly,  and  at  the  same  time  a  stream  of  water  injected  into 
the  machine,  thus  washing  the  loose  gum  thoroughly  off  the  fibre, 
whilst  the  beaters  or  stampers  keep  the  waste  soft  and  pliable  and 
help  to  loosen  the  gum.  Some  silks,  such  as  cocoons,  will  swell 
exceedingly  in  the  first  degumming  liquor,  and  have  to  be  continually 
beaten  and  trodden  by  the  attendants'  bare  feet  to  ensure  their  being 
saturated  thoroughly.  When  soft  enough  they  are  sometimes  placed 
on  a  perforated  and  movable  table,  which  is  moved  slowly  underneath 
a  jet  of  water,  which  is  arranged  above  the  table  so  that,  by  its  great 
force  and  fine  spray,  the  cocoons,  or  silk,  are  exceedingly  well  washed, 
to  free  them  from  dirt  and  loose  gum.  After  the  silk  has  been  under 
the  spray  for  some  time  the  table  is  withdrawn  and  the  silk  turned 
over,  so  that  what  was  underneath  comes  directly  under  the  tap  for 
the  washing,  which  is  repeated.  Much  experience  and  skill  are 
necessary  to  be  proficient  in  all  these  processes,  and  every  operation 
needs  most  careful  supervision — water  testing  for  heat  and  softness, 
repeated  testing  of  the  silk  to  ascertain  if  it  is  softening  satisfactorily, 
etc.  Any  slackness  or  inattention  to  any  of  these  details  may  result 


SILK   WASTE   DEGUMMING  55 

in  the  whole  process  having  to  be  repeated,  which  is  not  only  a  waste 
of  labour  and  expense,  but  does  the  silk  harm ;  or,  if  the  silk  is 
allowed  to  pass,  although  not  satisfactory,  much  trouble  may  be 
caused  in  the  after  processes,  and  the  yarn  spoiled.  After  the  wash- 
ing, the  silk  must  be  dried,  beaten,  and  conditioned. 

The  silks  most  in  favour  for  schapping  are  Japan  wastes,  China 
curlies,  knubs  of  all  sorts,  and  cocoons  of  all  descriptions.  Gum 
wastes  are  avoided,  because  by  the  nature  of  their  production  they 
are  subject  to  hard  ends — i.e.  twisted  threads — which  do  not  lend 


FIG.  24.— Waste  washer  or  stamper. 


themselves  to  any  softening  process.  Steam  wastes  are  not  used  very 
much,  because,  although  they  do  not  contain  hard  ends,  they  are  so 
matted  in  hard  lumps  that  they  soften  in  a  very  irregular  manner, 
and  whilst  some  portions  might  be  exceedingly  well  schapped,  the 
next  portion  would  most  probably  be  hard  and  gummy.  If  this  is 
softened  properly,  then  the  portion  which  was  previously  right  is  apt 
to  become  too  much  treated,  and  to  be  soft  and  tender.  Such  faults 
lead  also  to  a  variable  percentage  of  gum  being  left  in  the  finished 
yarn,  which  must  be  avoided,  as  buyers  calculate  the  worth  of  the 


SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 


yarn  in  some  measure  by  the  amount  of  gum  left  in.  It  is  fairly 
safe  to  assume  that  the  cheaper  the  yarn  the  more  gum  the  buyer  is 
purchasing.  A  first-class  white  schappe  will  contain  2J  to  5  per 
cent,  of  gum,  and  it  is  obvious  that  a  great  deal  of  skill  and  attention 
has  been  necessary  to  enable  the  producer  to  loosen  and  wash  away 
some  20  to  25  per  cent,  of  gum,  leaving  only  the  small  percentage 
above  mentioned. 

Boiling  or  discharging. — These  are  the  names  given  to  the  pro- 
cesses by  means  of  which  all  the  gum  is  boiled  off  the  silk  fibre ;  and 
the  methods  of  doing  so,  whilst  varying  very  much  in  detail,  follow  two 
main  ideas  or  principles.  One  is  to  subject  the  silk  to  boiling  liquors 


/  /  I  1  I  J  I  1 1  A //  I  I  !  \  Iff  I 

— =JT   * 


FIG.  25.— Boiling  tub. 

of  water  and  soap,  and  so  get  rid  of  the  gum  as  quickly  as  possible  ; 
and  the  other  is  to  soak  the  silk  in  hot  liquors,  and  do  as  little  boil- 
ing as  is  possible  consistent  with  a  thorough  discharge  of  the  gumming 
matter.  The  boiling  cisterns  used  to  be  made  of  copper,  but  of  late 
years  wooden  ones  have  become  very  popular.  Fig.  25  is  a  sectional 
drawing  showing  the  construction  of  these  boiling  tubs,  as  they  are 
called,  and  two  of  them  are  usually  placed  side  by  side  for  convenience 
in  working.  A  is  the  outer  casing  of  wood;  B  is  a  perforated  iron, 
false  bottom,  perforated  to  allow  steam  to  issue  from  pipe  S,  which  is 
coiled  round  the  tub  bottom ;  W  is  a  water  pipe ;  C  is  an  outlet  pipe, 
which  discharges  into  the  drain  D  ;  and  F  is  the  floor  level.  The 
tubs  are  6  ft.  deep  by  4J  ft.  diameter. 


SILK   WASTE   DEGUMMING  57 

Bagging. — This  refers  to  the  placing  of  the  silk  waste  into  strong 
open-meshed  cotton  bags,  measuring  about  16  by  10  in.  From  12  to 
16  oz.  of  silk  are  put  into  one  bag,  after  the  waste  has  been  well 
opened  and  loosened  by  the  "  bagger."  It  is  put  in  the  bag  in  as 
bulky  a  condition  as  possible,  and  the  mouth  tied  very  securely  with 
cotton  tape  to  prevent  the  contents  dropping  out  during  the  boiling 
process.  It  is  very  important  that  only  small  quantities  be  placed 
into  one  bag,  so  that  there  be  plenty  of  room  for  the  silk  to  swell. 
The  mesh  of  the  bags  should  be  about  \  in.,  so  as  to  allow  the  water 
to  circulate  freely.  It  is  an  important  matter  that  there  should  be 
periodical  examination  of  these  bags,  because  the  constant  wear  and 
tear  result  in  their  being  torn,  the  silk  thus  dropping  out  of  the  larger 
holes ;  and,  again,  the  bags  shrink  so  much  with  continuous  boiling 
and  immersions  in  hot  liquors  that  in  time  the  mesh  becomes  very 
close,  water  percolates  with  difficulty,  and  the  result  is  that  the  silk 
is  not  properly  discharged  or  degummed. 

Boiling. — For  the  boiling  tub  described  above,  100  to  120  Ib.  of 
silk  is  placed  into  bags.  Before  putting  these  bags  in  the  tub  the 
boiling  liquor  has  been  prepared.  About  18  to  24  in.  of  water  has 
been  run  in,  about  12  Ib.  of  white  curd  soap  has  been  added  in  thin 


FIG.  26.— Rake. 

shreds,  the  water  then  brought  to  boiling  point,  the  soap  melted,  and 
the  whole  allowed  to  cool  down  to  180°  F.  The  bags  of  silk  are  then 
thrown  in,  and  at  the  same  time  carefully  pushed  under  the  liquor  by 
the  help  of  a  pole  until  they  become  so  saturated  that  they  remain 
under  of  their  own  accord.  When  the  whole  100  to  120  Ib.  has  been 
put  in,  the  bags  will  nearly  have  filled  the  tub,  and  the  liquor  will 
just  cover  them ;  then  the  steam  is  turned  on,  and  as  the  water  boils 
the  bags  are  turned  over  and  over  by  the  action  of  the  steam,  so 
becoming  boiled  in  all  parts  alike.  The  attendant  must  see  that  the 
bags  are  kept  on  the  move,  and  by  means  of  his  pole,  or  the  wrought- 
iron  fork  shown  in  Fig.  26,  must  push,  lift,  and  knock  about  the  bags 
so  that  those  which  lie  at  the  bottom  are  brought  to  the  top,  and  vice 
versd,  all  of  which  is  to  ensure  every  portion  of  silk  being  thoroughly 
degummed.  If  constant  turning  is  not  done  in  every  process  of  silk 
boiling,  the  portion  of  silk  forming  the  centre  of  the  bag  retains  some 
gummy  matter  which  is  very  detrimental  in  after  processes ;  or  it 
may  be  discharged,  but  the  centre  retain  a  quantity  of  yellow  colour- 
ing matter  which  causes  the  mixing  to  be  a  darker  shade  than  is  liked 
or  necessary. 

The  first  boiling  should  occupy  from  1J  to  2  hours,  when  steam 


58  SILK   WASTE    SPINNING 

is  turned   off  and  the  liquor  allowed  to  run  away,  the  bags  being 
then  removed  and  taken  to  the  hydro  extractor,  Figs.   27  and  28. 

n 


1 

B 

f  "A  '""i 

I;A                      •!          V                     A  ;; 
'i                       '*             \* 

B 
—  ^ 

1 

>N/C 

FIG.  27.— Hydro  extractor  (side  elevation). 


FIG.  28. — Hydro  extractor. 


I 

SILK   WASTE   DEGUMMING 


59 


These  are  strongly  constructed,  and  the  cage  A  is  best  made  of 
copper.  The  material  is  placed  inside  this  cage  and  the  machine 
set  in  motion,  when  the  centrifugal  force  and  air  current  drives 
the  water  out  through  the  sides  of  the  revolving  wire  cage,  against 
the  stationary  strong  iron  sides  of  the  outer  cage  B,  .whence  it 
escapes  at  the  outlet  C.  This  semi-drying  process  gets  rid  of  the 
gummy,  dirty  liquor  from  the  silk  out  of  its  first  boil.  Another 
way  of  achieving  the  same  result  is  by  means  of  a  mangle  machine, 
Fig.  29,  through  which  the  silk  is  run,  two  or  three  bags  side  by 
side.  The  top  roller  is  held  by  strong  springs  operated  by  hand- 
wheels.  Some  spinners  are  very  fond  of  this  squeezing  of  the  silk, 
and  doubtless  when  the  lot  is  full  of  cocoons  containing  the  worm 
and  chrysalis,  the  mangle  is  the  best  means  of  crushing  these  dele- 
terious matters  out.  It  is  also  thought  by  some  to  put  a  lustre  into 
the  silk  not  obtained  by  the  hydro  extractor.  Again,  some  qualities 


FIG.  29.— Mangle. 

of  silk  are  lifted  out  of  the  boiling  tub  on  to  a  wooden  grid  placed  on 
the  top  of  the  tub,  and  allowed  to  remain  there  some  time,  whilst  the 
liquor  gradually  drips  back  into  the  tub.  Meanwhile  a  second  tub 
has  been  half  filled  with  water,  about  15  Ib.  of  soap  dissolved  in  it, 
and  the  whole  boiled  and  allowed  to  cool  as  before.  The  bags  of 
waste  previously  treated  are  now  put  into  the  second  tub,  and  re- 
boiled  from  1  to  1J  hour,  all  the  time  being  constantly  stirred  and 
watched  as  in  the  first  bath.  They  are  then  taken  out,  and  in  some 
cases  immediately  placed  in  the  hydro  extractor  and  dried  as  much  as 


60  SILK  WASTE   SPINNING 

possible ;  in  other  cases  the  bags  are  opened  and  the  silk  placed  in 
clean  hot  water  at  about  180°  F.,  well  rinsed  from  soap,  and  then 
dried. 

Some  spinners  like  the  silk  to  be  a  little  soapy  when  finished,  and 
others  take  just  as  much  trouble  to  wash  the  soap  out.  One  class  say 
the  soap  feeds  the  silk  and  helps  it  to  work  long,  whilst  the  other 
class  say  the  soap  makes  the  silk  work  greasy,  cloggy,  and  dull. 
Probably  they  are  both  right  in  their  respective  mills,  the  difference  in 
the  treatment  arising  more  from  the  difference  in  the  water  and  soap 
used  than  anything  else.  The  liquor  in  the  second  boiling  tub  is 
saved  and  used  for  another  boil,  but  as  a  first  boil  only ;  and  in  place 
of  using  12  Ib.  of  soap,  only  8  Ib.  need  be  used,  as  sufficient  soapy 
matter  is  left  in  the  liquor  of  the  second  boil  to  make  the  addition  of 
8  Ib.  of  soap  quite  enough  to  ensure  a  proper  degumming. 

The  first  boil  is  for  the  purpose  of  thoroughly  softening  the  gum, 
and  when  properly  done  the  silk  feels  soft  and  very  slimy.  The  after 
processes  are  to  wash  off  the  gum,  and  at  the  same  time  to  bleach  the 
fibre.  For  many  qualities  of  silk  wastes  some  spinners  do  not  boil  the 


FIG.  30.— Brins. 

silk  in  the  first  instance.  Instead,  they  omit  bagging  the  silk  and  put 
100  to  120  Ib.  into  the  tub,  and  press  it  well  down,  somewhat  after  the 
manner  described  in  schapping,  and  allow  the  silk  to  remain  in  the 
soapy  liquor  6  to  10  hours  at  180°  F.  The  gum  is  then  found  to  be 
well  softened,  and  the  silk  ready  for  putting  into  a  second  bath  and 
therein  boiled.  Never  under  any  circumstances  should  the  silk  be 
placed  in  water  which  is  boiling.  This  would,  particularly  in  the 
second  boil,  fasten  the  dirt  and  colour  into  the  fibre.  The  boil  should 
not  be  of  a  violent  nature,  as  it  would  blow  or  disintegrate  the  silk 
fibre.  Very  violent  boiling,  coupled  with  an  excess  of  alkali,  will  spoil 
the  fibre,  and  if  then  a  brin  of  such  silk  be  examined  under  a  powerful 
microscope  it  will  be  seen  that  it  presents  the  appearance  of  having 
little  projections  from  the  thread,  as  if  the  fibre  had  split.  Fig.  30 
shows  this  appearance  better  than  words  can  describe  it.  A  is  a  brin 


SILK    WASTE   DEGUMMING 


61 


of  silk  properly  boiled ;  B,  a  brin  too  much  boiled ;  and  at  C  the  fibre 
is  shown  broken.  This  fault  makes  the  silk  very  tender ;  it  will  not 
spin  to  as  fine  a  count  as  it  ought,  and  in  the  various  drawing 
processes  a  great  deal  too  much  waste  is  caused. 

After  being  once  used,  the  soap  baths  are  often  sold  to  dyers,  and 
are  known  as  boiled-off  or  gum  liquor.  They  are  valued  on  account  of 
the  gum  and  fatty  matters  in  the  liquid,  and  are  used  for  dyeing 
purposes,  the  gum  adding  lustre  to  dyed  silks.  A  great  deal,  however, 
of  the  boiled-off  liquor  finds  its  way  into  the  nearest  brook  or  river, 
thus  polluting  it  to  some  extent.  It  is  possible  that  legislation  will  in 
time  compel  spinners  to  turn  out  their  waste  liquors  in  a  state  of 
purity,  and  then  it  will  be  necessary  for  them  to  find  some  cheap 
means  of  recovering  the  soap  from  the  liquor. 

RECIPES  FOR  BOILING. — The  following  recipes  for  silk  boiling  will  be 
found  of  great  service.  The  soap  must  -be  of  good  quality  and  the 
water  very  soft,  or  the  proportions  of  soap  used,  and  even  the  time 
occupied  in  boiling,  will  have  to  be  altered  : — 


First  Boil. 

Second  Boil. 

Quality. 

Weight 
in  Gum. 

! 

4 

g 

H 

1 

1 

1 

1 

.2 
1 

o 

O 

| 

Mins. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Mins. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Home  China            .         .         .          120 

60 

9 

90 

11 

Italian,     French,    and     Swiss 

gum  wastes          .        •  .     .    . 

120 

120 

18 

150 

16 

Canton  gum  and  steam  wastes 
Curlies,  knubs,  and  kikai 

120 
100 

80 
60 

10 
10 

75 
60 

12 
10 

Shanghai,  punjum  books  and 

waste          .         .                  .          120            90       11 

2 

60 

15 

Indian  wastes          .         .         .  j        100 

60 

12 

60 

12 

Tussah  knubs  and  throwsters' 

waste           .         .         .         .          100            90 

10 

4 

60       12 

Tussah  cocoons 

100 

120 

13 

6 

80         7 

4 

The  chemicals  are  salts  of  tartar.  If  a  specially  white  yarn  is 
required,  made  from  China  wastes,  half  a  thimbleful  of  No.  1  Blue  is 
put  into  the  second  boiling  liquor.  This  takes  away  the  slight  cream 
tone,  which  is  really  the  natural  colour  of  silk.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  home  China  waste  takes  much  less  soap  than  Italian,  French,  and 
Swiss  China.  The  reason  for  this  is,  that  home  China  waste  (English 
thrown)  is  soapy,  whereas  the  continental  is  not.  The  gum  of  foreign 
thrown  waste  also  takes  a  lot  more  softening  than  the  English,  very 


62  SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 

often  caused  by  the  addition  of  insoluble  compounds  to  raw  silk  prior 
to  winding,  etc.,  hence  the  longer  time  occupied  in  boiling ;  the  alkali 
in  the  soap  used  by  home  throwsters  has  slightly  softened  the  gum, 
because  the  waste  has  usually  been  lying  in  a  heap  some  months.  In 
boiling-off  white  gum  wastes  of  English  and  continental  origin  it  is 
not  absolutely  necessary  to  have  two  boilings,  one  being  quite 
sufficient  if  done  in  the  following  manner :  Run  water  in  the  boiling 
tub  to  a  depth  of  about  36  in.,  add  10  Ib.  of  soap,  heat  until  the 
soap  is  dissolved,  and  then  put  in  100  Ib.  of  silk  in  bags.  Allow 
them  to  remain  in  for  1  hour  at  about  160°  F.,  then  add  15  Ib.  of 
soap  which  has  previously  been  dissolved.  Boil  the  silk  for  '2^  hours 
if  continental,  and  for  1  hour  if  English.  The  silk  is  then  taken  out 
and  put  through  the  hydro  extractor  in  the  usual  way. 

Steam,  curlies,  knubs,  and  kikai  classes  of  wastes  need  putting 
through  rollers,  or  into  the  hydro  extractor,  between  the  first  and 
second  boils.  All  wastes  which  contain  chrysalis,  as  kikai  and  curlies, 
want  careful  treating  in  the  first  boil  in  order  to  get  them  well 
softened,  and  should  then  be  well  washed  to  get  rid  of  the  dirty- 
coloured  liquor  caused  by  the  chrysalis.  If  the  wastes  are  put  straight 
from  the  first  boil  into  the  second  boil,  they  hold  a  large  quantity  of 
discoloured  water  which  stains  the  waste  and  is  practically  boiled  into 
the  waste  by  the  second  boiling,  which  is  thus  made  to  act  practically 
as  a  dyeing  liquor.  Very  dusty  wastes,  like  the  Indian  variety, 
require  a  preliminary  wash  before  the  first  boil,  and  a  good  way  is  to 
prepare  an  ammonia  bath — a  shallow  wooden  tank  full  of  water  into ' 
which  a  pint  or  two  of  ammonia  has  been  added.  The  waste  is  then 
rinsed  through  this  bath,  the  ammonia  killing  the  grease  and  dirt  in  a 
wonderful  way,  and  allowing  the  soap  in  the  first  boiling  to  play 
immediately  on  the  silk  to  degum  it.  The  colour  of  waste  treated  in 
this  way  is  usually  much  clearer  and  whiter  than  it  would  be  if  boiled 
off  without  the  preliminary  bath. 

Each  class  of  waste  requires  careful  study  and  supervision  to  gain 
a  knowledge  of  what  is  the  best  process  and  the  most  suitable  water 
and  soaps.  These  differ  so  much  in  various  districts  that  a  process 
which  will  suit  one  spinner  might  have  to  be  altered  very  materially 
to  suit  the  conditions  in  another  district.  Silk  boiling  and  schapping 
are  most  important  processes,  and  ought  to  be  conducted  by  intelligent 
and  skilled  workmen.  After  they  have  done  their  part,  the  resulting 
silk  needs  careful  inspection  day  by  day,  and  any  waste  not  properly 
boiled  or  schapped  taken  out  and  redone. 

Drying. — After  boiling,  washing  off,  and  treatment  in  the  hydro 
extractor,  the  silk  is  taken,  by  means  of  skips  on  wheels  or  trucks,  to  a 
stove  or  drying  machine.  The  stove  is  very  often  a  room  partitioned 
off  from  the  boilers ;  or,  if  that  is  not  convenient,  a  room  near  the 
washhouse  is  used,  being  converted  into  a  stove  by  means  of  a  coil  of 
steampipes  along  the  floor.  Posts  are  erected  at  distances  of  2  to  3 


SILK   WASTE    DEGUMMING  63 

ft.  apart,  and  cross  beams  affixed  to  them,  on  which  are  placed  small 
galvanised  hooks.  The  silk  is  hung  on  these  hooks  and  allowed  to 
remain  in  the  room  until  thoroughly  dry,  or  latticed  stages  are  erected 
round  the  room,  and  the  silk  placed  on  them  until  dry. 

A  better  system  is  to  use  one  of  the  numerous  drying  machines, 
made  specially  to  dry  a  large  weight  of  material  per  day.  Fig  31 
illustrates  the  principal  of  these  machines.  A  is  the  outer  frame, 
and  G,  H,  J,  K  represent  four  sections  into  which  the  machine  is 
divided  for  convenience  of  looking  into  the  apparatus  if  anything 
goes  wrong.  B  is  a  space  provided  to  draw  in  fresh  cold  air,  or  it  can 
be  utilised  by  putting  in  a  tubular  heater  and  fan,  and  so  forcing  air 
to  the  top  of  the  machine  to  the  outlet  E.  This  outlet  in  the  machine 
shown  is  provided  with  an  exhaust  fan,  and  draws  hot  air  from  the 
bottom  of  the  machine  through  the  silk,  so  keeping  the  material  light 
and  loose  The  wet  silk  M  is  fed  into  the  machine  at  F,  and  carried 


FIG.. '31. — Drying  machine. 


forward  by  means  of  a  latticed  chain  C  to  end,  when  the  silk  drops  on 
to  the  second  latticed  chain  D,  that  portion  of  material  which  was 
uppermost  now  being  underneath,  and  is  thus  carried  forward  and 
dropped  again  on  the  third  chain,  and  thence  to  the  outlet  L.  Some 
machines  are  made  with  five  or  seven  sets  of  latticed  chains  in  place  of 
the  three  illustrated.  S  are  steampipes  for  heating  the  chamber.  One 
of  the  advantages  of  a  machine  is,  that  it  can  be  placed  at  one  end  of 
the  washhouse  or  near  to  that  establishment,  so  that  the  silk  is  not 
carried  out  of  doors  to  the  drying  place.  In  cold  weather  silk  should 
not  be  allowed  to  be  chilled  in  transit  from  the  finishing  liquor  to  the 
hydro,  or  from  thence  to  the  stove.  Frost  and  cold  winds  damage  the 
fibre  very  much,  making  it  harsh  and  tender. 

Drying  appears  to  be  a  very  simple  process.  The  ordinary  work- 
man thinks  it  only  necessary  to  take  the  silk  and  hang  it  on  the  hooks 
in  the  stove,  or  put  it  on  the  travelling  creeper  of  the  drying  machine, 
for  the  heat  to  do  the  rest.  This  is  a  great  mistake.  Bad  drying 


64 


SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 


means  irregular  drying — too  much  or  too  little,  which  are  equally 
deleterious.  If  a  stove  is  used,  the  silk  needs  hanging  on  the  hook — 
not  in  a  big  lump,  the  centre  of  which  retains  moisture  after  the 
outside  is  dry ;  but  the  portion  hung  should  be  pulled  and  opened,  to 
make  it  hang  as  lightly  and  loosely  as  possible,  so  that  the  hot  air  can 
circulate  freely  through  the  silk,  so  drying  all  portions  of  it.  When 
fed  on  a  travelling  creeper,  it  should  be  spread  lightly  and  evenly,  and 
then  the  result  is  a  nice  lofty  silk,  whether  stove-dried  or  machine- 
dried.  It  must  be  thoroughly  dry,  or  it  will  not  "  condition  "  properly 
afterwards.  After  drying  it  is  usual  to  weigh  the  silk,  in  order  to  see 
what  percentage  of  gum  is  on  the  fibre  or  what  percentage  of  gum 
has  been  boiled  off;  and  this  is  important  to  watch,  because  of  its 
effect  in  regulating  the  price  or  value  of  the  silk  in  the  gum,  and  a 
proper  record  should  be  kept  and  examined  from  time  to  time,  in 
order  to  see  that  the  qualities  are  not  deteriorating  or  having  additions 
made  to  the  natural  gum  by  the  natives  in  the  East. 

PERCENTAGE  OF  GUM  LOST  IN  BOILING. — Appended  is  a  list 
showing  the  approximate  amount  lost  in  discharging  various 
wastes : — 


Quality. 

Weight  to 
Boil. 

Weight  from 
Stove. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Home  China 

100 

66  to  69 

Foreign  China    . 

70 

75 

Canton  gum 

70 

72 

Steam  waste  knub.s 

59 

62 

Curlies  and  kikai 

69 

74 

Fine  Shanghai  . 

72 

75 

Coarse  Shanghai 

70 

72 

Indian  wastes    . 

66 

70 

Punjum  hooks  . 

52 

55 

Tussah 

72 

80 

It  will  readily  be  understood  how  vital  a  point  is  the  loss  in 
boiling  when  one  considers  that  raw  waste  of  super  quality  costs  from 
2s.  6d.  to  3s.  6d.  per  pound,  so  that  the  cost  of  the  discharged  waste 
is  augmented  or  decreased  in  accordance  with  the  loss,  and  vice  versd. 
The  value  of  the  raw  material  is  proportionate  to  the  yield  after 
boiling.  The  loss  on  all  classes  of  waste  is  important,  for  no  matter 
if  the  quality  be  low,  an  extra  2  or  3  per  cent,  loss  in  the  boiling 
increases  the  cost  of  the  yarn  made  from  it,  and  goes  to  reduce  the 
margin,  which  on  lower  quality  yarns  is,  generally  speaking,  corre- 
spondingly less.  It  is  not  a  sufficient  test  to  simply  take  the  weight 
of  silk  returned  from  the  stove,  as  the  degree  of  dryness  may  vary  at 


SILK   WASTE   DEGUMMING  65 

different  times,  being  better  dried  on  some  occasions  than  others.  It 
is  essential  that  systematic  tests  be  made  from  time  to  time,  by  taking 
10  Ib.  of  gum  silk  made  up  from  ten  separate  bales,  1  Ib.  from  each, 
carefully  weighed  to  fractions  of  an  ounce,  which  is  sent  to  the  stove 
to  be  dried,  say,  for  twenty-four  hours,  when  the  waste  is  weighed 
and  the  loss  carefully  noted.  This  treatment  is  repeated  several 
times  until  it  will  lose  no  more  by  drying.  To  the  net  result  add  1 1 
per  cent.,  which  is  the  natural  moisture  in  silk,  and  is  the  recognised 
legal  proportion  allowed.  The  weight  now  arrived  at  is  the  natural 
weight  of  the  silk.  Have  the  silk  boiled  along  with  an  ordinary  boil, 
specially  marking  the  bags  containing  the  dried  silk,  so  that,  when 
discharged,  these  particular  bags  can  be  sorted  out  and  the  silk  taken 
from  them  and  dried  in  the  same  manner  as  described  above,  until  it 
will  lose  no  more  by  drying;  then  add  11  per  cent.,  and  from  this 
the  exact  loss  in  boiling  off  can  be  ascertained.  Example  : — 


Waste  in  the  gum  taken 
from  the  bales,  10  Ib. 


Dry  weight        .         .         .     9'0  Ib. 
Plus  11  per  cent.       .         .     0'99 


Natural  weight       .     9  "99 


Suppose  resulting  boiling  off  be  7  Ib.,  then  tinder  dry  .     6 '87  Ib. 

Plus  11  percent.          .     075 

7-62 
Deduct  from  9 '99  Ib. 

7'62 


2-37  Ib.  loss  on  9 '99  Ib.  =2372  per  cent. 

If  a  record  be  kept  of  these  trials,  and  also  of  the  daily  results 
from  the  stove,  any  unusual  loss  will  be  quickly  noticed,  and  steps 
can  be  taken  to  find  out  the  reason  and  prevent  further  loss.  The 
records  also  show  if  the  boils  are  being  properly  dried  in  the  stove. 
If  it  be  that  the  waste  has  deteriorated — which  is  many  times  the 
case — the  spinner  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  he  must  buy 
at  a  proportionately  lower  price,  or  replace  it  by  other  qualities  which 
yield  what  he  requires. 

Home  China  wastes  require  watching  very  carefully,  as  the 
different  throwsters  may  put  a  greater  percentage  of  soap  in  their 
waste,  to  say  nothing  of  the  extra  so-called  "conditioning."  It 
naturally  follows  that  damp  waste  will  yield  a  less  percentage  after 
the  boiling  and  drying. 

Gum  wastes  from  the  East,  and  particularly  punjum  wastes,  are 
sometimes  "faked  up"  with  rice  water,  made  into  a  sort  of  size, 
which  adds  weight  to  the  silk  in  the  raw,  but  boils  out  only  too 
easily.  Again,  the  Indian  wastes  are  very  dusty  and  sandy  at  times, 
which  all  means  loss  of  yield. 

Bleaching. — Some  silks  are  very  yellow  in  colour,  and  it  is 
5 


66  SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 

occasionally  necessary  to  bleach  them.  Tussah  is  the  most  difficult 
silk  to  bleach,  so  that  any  method  of  bleaching  this  class  of  silk 
which  can  be  applied  successfully  will  also  be  found  to  suit  other 
silks.  But  of  course  the  strength  of  the  liquor  and  the  time  occupied 
will  vary  according  to  the  class  of  silk  to  be  treated.  The  silk 
produced  by  the  Bombyx  mori  is  more  easily  bleached  than  tussah. 
The  safest  and  most  powerful  bleaching  agents  are  the  peroxides  of 
hydrogen  and  sodium,  but  being  so  costly  they  are  only  used  for 
very  special  purposes.  Sulphur  bleaching  is  not  now  often  practised, 
because  the  result  is  not  permanent.  The  following  is  a  good 
bleaching  bath  for  100  Ib.  of  silk  previously  boiled  off:  460  gallons 
of  water,  30  Ib.  caustic  soda,  20  Ib.  white  curd  soap,  20  gallons  of 
hydrogen  peroxide,  and  a  little  ammonia.  The  silk  is  steeped  and 
boiled  for  a  few  hours,  until  the  desired  result  is  obtained. 

A  much  cheaper  method  is  the  following :  460  gallons  water,  20 
gallons  peroxide,  and  a  little  borax.  The  100  Ib.  of  silk  is  placed  in 
this  bath  for  from  ten  to  twelve  hours,  and  then  turned  over  and  allowed 
to  remain  for  the  same  period,  after  which  it  is  heated  up  from  120° 
to  160°  F.  for  from  two  to  four  hours.  The  bath  will  last  longer  if 
a  little  soap  is  used. 

Picking  silk. — After  boiling,  bleaching,  and  drying,  the  silk 
should  be  examined,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  all  foreign  matters,  such 
as  straw,  China  grass,  hemp,  hairs  (from  animals  and  human  beings), 
hard- twisted  ends,  etc.,  picked  out.  This  examination  may  be  de- 
ferred until  the  after  processes ;  but  then  the  pickings  are  broken  up 
into  thousands  more  pieces,  thus  making  the  operation  more  difficult. 
The  best  plan  appears  to  be  to  have  the  discharged  waste,  as  it  comes 
from  the  stove,  looked  over  by  females,  who  should  take  out  all  the 
large  and  easily  seen  deleterious  objections.  The  waste  may  then 
have  a  second  picking,  which  will  be  described  in  due  course. 

•  FOREIGN  MATTERS. — The  foreign  matters  to  be  looked  for  in  the 
various  wastes  are — 

Gum  wastes — i.e.  thrown  wastes. — Hard-twisted  ends,  fine  and 
coarse,  usually  called  "silk  twist,"  and  made  by  the  attendants  in 
various  reeling  and  winding  processes,  very  often  when  making  piec- 
ings ;  but  the  bulk  of  such  faults  are  made  by  the  cocoon  reeler.  . 

Steam,  kikai,  and  curlies  wastes. — Only  a  few  straws  and  hairs 
are  found — so  few  that  they  are  not  of  much  consequence. 

Punjum  waste. — Subject  to  rotten  portions  of  waste  and  hemp. 

Shanghai  and  Canton  gum  wastes. — Subject  to  silk  twist,  hairs, 
straws,  and  China  grass. 

Indian  and  szechuen  wastes. — All  sorts  of  rubbish — from  paper  to 
bits  of  cigarettes,  from  nails  to  pieces  of  hoop  iron,  straw  and  hemp 
to  bits  of  rope,  and  hairs  in  abundance. 

Some  of  the  grades  are  full  of  balls  of  silk,  and  inside  the  ball  is 
a  piece  of  paper  or  some  vegetable  substance ;  then  comes  a  layer  or 


SILK   WASTE   DEGUMMING  67 

two  of  bad  silk,  then  some  good  silk.  The  lower  grades  of  waste 
contain  from  5  to  15  per  cent,  of  such  objectionable  matter,  and 
therefore  these  wastes  are  shunned  by  most  spinners,  as  it  is  impos- 
sible by  any  known  system  of  picking  to  rid  the  waste  of  these  faults, 
and  in  consequence  the  yarn  resulting  is  only  a  second-rate  article, 
and  can  only  be  used  for  very  poor  goods  where  imperfections  are 
either  not  seen  or  do  not  matter.  The  hairs  in  the  waste  are  from 
animals  like  goats  and  sheep,  and  also  combings  from  the  heads  of 
the  peasants.  It  will  be  remembered  that  a  large  weight  of  silk  is 
reeled  in  cottages  by  peasantry,  and  they  often  keep  domestic  animals 
in  the  same  abode ;  therefore  the  hairs  from  them  get  mixed  with  the 
waste  thrown  on  the  floor  during  the  reeling  process,  and  all  are 
mixed  and  sold  together  as  silk.  The  deleterious  matters  in  silk 
waste  are  chiefly  vegetable  and  animal,  and  since  competition  has 
become  keener,  many  attempts  have  been  made  to  destroy  them  by 
chemical  means. 

Carbonisation. — Jlairs  and  silk  both  being  animal  fibre,  it  naturally 
appears  that  what  will  destroy  the  former  must  at  least  materially 
injure  the  latter,  and  so,  many  experimenters  have  given  the  matter 
up.  As  regards  vegetable  impurities,  the  case  is  quite  different.  In 
the  worsted  spinning  the  purging  of  vegetable  matters  from  the  wool 
by  means  of  so-called  carbonisation  is  an  accomplished  fact,  and  it  is 
a  little  surprising  that  this  process  has  not  come  into  general  use  in 
the  silk  spinning  industry.  Probably  the  reason  is,  that  silk  is  a  very 
costly  article,  and  is  very  soon  damaged  by  acids,  and  in  such  a  way 
that  nothing  can  remedy  the  defect.  Sometimes  the  damage  done  to 
the  silk  waste  in  some  of  the  processes  has  not  been  detected  until  the 
yarn  has  actually  been  spun  and  woven  into  cloth  and  then  kept  on 
the  warehouseman's  shelves  for  some  time.  When  taken  down,  the 
goods  have  been  found  eaten  into  little  holes,  or  the  colour  of  the 
cloth  has  been  affected,  making  it  look  "spotty,"  this  being  caused 
by  the  action  of  some  acid  which  has  not  been  thoroughly  washed  off 
the  waste.  Foreign  schappe  spinners  have  in  some  cases  perfected  a 
carbonisation  process,  and  as  they  leave  a  proportion  of  gum  on  the 
silk  fibre,  which  acts  as  a  preservative,  they  are  better  able  to  success- 
fully destroy  vegetable  matters  by  chemical  action  than  English  silk 
spinners.  Still  it  is  quite  possible  to  use  this  treatment  for  fully 
discharged  silks.  It  is  well  known  to  chemists  that  dilute  sulphuric 
acid,  strength  2  per  cent,  of  acid  at  a  temperature  of  from  50°  to 
55°  C.,  will  thoroughly  carbonise  ligneous  cellulose,  and  for  raw 
cotton  the  same  percentage  of  acid  and  a  heat  of  76°  C.  will  suffice. 
The  effect  of  the  acid  and  the  subsequent  drying  of  the  waste  at  a 
high  temperature  are  to  convert  the  vegetable  matter  (cellulose)  into 
friable  hydro-cellulose,  whilst  the  silk  (animal  fibre)  is  left  intact. 
The  grass,  hemp,  etc.,  first  turns  brown  and  then  black,  when  a  slight 
crushing  by  rollers  reduces  the  matter  to  powder. 


68 


SILK   WASTE    SPINNING 


A  method  of  carbonising  by  muriatic  acid  is  as  follows  :  The  silk 
is  taken  from  the  drying  stove  and  placed  lightly  and  evenly  on 
hurdles  in  an  air-tight  room,  and  exposed  to  the  fumes  of  muriatic 
acid  for  from  three  to  four  hours.  After  this  the  temperature  is 
raised  to  300°  F.  for  half  an  hour  or  so.  The  heating  is  stopped  and 
fresh  air  let  into  the  chamber.  When  it  is  cool  enough,  the  silk  is 
taken  out  and  given  a  thorough  washing  to  remove  all  trace  of  acid. 
It  must  then  be  redried,  and  on  examination  the  vegetable  matters 
will  be  found  brown  and  black  and  very  brittle.  A  bath  of  sulphurous 
acid,  a  drying  process,  an  alkaline  bath,  and  a  thorough  washing 
afterwards  will  effect  the  same  result. 

Fig.  32  illustrates  a  carbonising  chamber  in  end  view  and  side 
elevation.  The  treated  silk  S  is  placed  on  trays  T,  which  can  be 
easily  handled  and  pushed  into  the  chamber  as  they  are  filled.  The 


FIG.  32. — Carbonising  chamber. 

chamber  is  heated  by  a  tubular  heater  or  steampipes  P,  and  the  hot 
air  is  drawn  out  by  a  fan  at  F  when  the  silk  has  been  in  sufficiently 
long  to  effect  a  proper  destruction  of  the  vegetable  matters. 

It  should  be  understood  that  this  process  is  a  very  delicate  one, 
and  the  least  miscalculation  or  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the  work- 
people will  absolutely  spoil  the  silk,  making  it  tender,  rotten,  and 
badly  discoloured. 

Conditioning. — After  all  these  treatments  by  heat  and  hot  liquors 
the  silk  is  in  a  dry  condition,  and  if  sent  to  the  mill  to  be  worked  by 
machinery,  the  result  will  be  bad  work  and  very  short,  irregular  fibres, 
so  it  must  be  allowed  to  absorb  its  natural  moisture  of  1 1  per  cent. 
Whilst  silk  will  not  work  properly  if  dry  and  harsh,  it  will  work  if 
properly  moistened  with  water,  but  it  must  not  be  wet  in  patches ; 
hence,  spraying  with  a  hose-pipe  and  fine  rose,  or  using  the  watering- 


SILK   WASTE   DEGUMMING 


69 


can,  is  not  satisfactory.  It  is  absolutely  essential  that  the  silk  be 
well  and  evenly  dried  in  the  stove  or  drying  machine.  If  some 
portions  are  damp  and  others  dry,  the  latter  absorb  moisture  quickly, 
and  the  former  get  very  wet,  so  that  the  silk  is  irregular  in  condition 
and  works  very  badly  in  the  after  processes.  It  is  also  very  detri- 
mental to  force  silk  into  condition  :  it  must  have  time  to  pick  up 
moisture  naturally,  and  the  best-known  means  of  allowing  it  to  do  so 
is  to  construct  a  conditioning  floor.  A  cellar,  well  ventilated,  but 
dark,  is  the  best  for  the  purpose.  The  floor  is  prepared  (see  Fig.  33A, 
which  is  a  sectional  elevation)  by  first  putting  down  12  in.  of 
sand  or  ashes  and  broken  stones  to  act  as  drainage  A ;  over  this  is 
placed  a  layer  of  clay  B,  and  then  bricks  C,  with  gutters  D  every  3  or 
4  ft.  apart.  Fig.  33s  shows  the  plan  of  this  floor.  When  the  floor  is 


If            II 

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FIGS.  33A  and  33s.—  Conditioning  floor. 

made,  the  bricks  are  thoroughly  soaked  with  water,  which  gradually 
works  down  to  the  clay,  and  is  there  retained,  always  keeping  the 
bricks  moist.  Excessive  moisture  finds  its  way  through  the  clay  and 
drains  away  through  the  rubble  layer  below.  The  gutters  are  kept 
half  full  of  water,  which  is  constantly  evaporating,  and  keeps  the 
atmosphere  moist.  The  bricks  must  not  be  soaking  wet,  only  damp, 
and  then,  when  hot  silk  from  the  stove  is  spread  thinly  on  them,  the 
heat  of  the  silk  causes  the  moisture  to  ascend,  and  it  is  greedily 
absorbed  from  the  bricks  and  the  air  by  the  dry  silk,  which  soon 
begins  to  feel  damp,  soft,  and  pliable.  A  proper  condition  cannot  be 
described  in  cold  print;  only  experience  and  observation  can  tell 
when  the  process  is  complete.  After  the  silk  has  lain  sufficient  time 
on  the  floor  it  is  picked  up  and  packed  into  large  skips  or  placed  into 


70  SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 

bins  for  some  days  or  even  weeks,  to  still  further  complete  the  con- 
ditioning.    These  skips  S  are  packed  one  above  the  other,  as  shown 


FIG.  34. — Conditioning  shelves. 


n 

1:1 


FIG.  35. — Plan  of  bale  room,  washing  house,  and  conditioning-floor. 


SILK   WASTE   DEGUMMING 


in  Fig.  34,  so  that  the  contents  can  be  turned  over  from  time  to  time, 
and  also  to  allow  free  access  of  air. 

In  Fig.  35  is  shown  a  plan  of  a  bale-receiving  room  A,  boiling- 


FIG.  36. — Soaping  or  conditioning  machine. 

house  B,  and  conditioning-room  C,  with  plant  set  out  for  convenient 
and  economical  working.  The  description  is  as  follows :  A  is  the 
bale-receiving  and  wTeighing-room,  at  the  far  end  of  which  the  waste- 
opening  machine  D  is  placed.  At  this  point  the  silk  is  bagged 


FIG.  37. — Supple  machine,  worm  driven. 

preparatory  for  boiling  or  steeping.  B  is  the  steeping  and  boiling 
house ;  K,  L,  M,  N,  O,  P  are  boiling  tubs.  E  are  steeping  cisterns ; 
or  the  same  room  can  be  occupied  by  various  schapping  machines.  F 
is  the  drying  machine,  and  if  required  the  same  machine  can  be  used 


72  SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 

for  carbonisation.  H  and  J  are  hydro  extractors.  The  dotted  lines 
show  drains.  It  should  be  remembered  that  over  the  tubs,  K  to  P, 
can  be  placed  the  water-softening  cistern,  and,  if  it  is  arranged  the 
same  length  as  the  length  of  space  occupied  by  the  'tubs,  a  tap  is 
connected  directly  from  it  and  over  each  tub,  to  serve  the  same  with 
the  softened  water  necessary  for  perfect  silk  schapping  or  boiling. 
The  drying  machine  is  placed  in  the  boil-house,  because  it  can  easily 
be  attended  to  by  some  one  or  other  of  the  workmen  engaged  in  the 
silk  boiling.  C  is  the  conditioning-room,  into  which  the  silk  can  be 
taken  direct  from  the  drying  machine.  The  floor  space  is  occupied 


FIG.  38. — Supple  machine,  wheel  driven. 

by  ^spreading  on  it  the  dry  silk,  and  round  the  walls  are  placed  the 
bins  and  skips,  as  shown  in  Fig.  34. 

Suppleing. — The  preceding  description  of  conditioning  may  be 
termed  the  natural  conditioning  process,  but  in  addition  to  this 
method  there  are  ways  of  mechanical  conditioning,  and  some  silks 
work  better  if  a  little  soapy.  Fig.  36  represents  a  machine  which  can 
be  used  with  advantage,  the  following  being  a  description  of  it : — The 
silk  is  fed  on  the  long  travelling  creeper  A  towards  the  rollers  B,  E, 
and  during  progression  a  fine  spray  of  soap  and  water  is  allowed  to 
fall  on  the  silk  at  points  C  and  D.  The  silk  is  put  through  the  same 
process  two  or  three  times  to  ensure  all  parts  being  treated  uniformly, 


SILK   WASTE   DEGUMMING  73 

and  each  time  the  rollers,  B,  E,  squeeze  out  all  superfluous  moisture. 
This  machine  is  made  use  of  to  greater  advantage  when  the  silks  are 
to  be  worked  with  a  large  proportion  of  gum  left  on  the  fibre. 

For  silks  which  incline  to  mat  together  during  the  schapping  or 
boiling  processes,  such  as  knubs,  steam  wastes,  etc.,  the  supple 
machines  shown  in  Figs.  37  and  38  are  often  employed.  The  shaft 
S— on  which  are  fixed  worms  W — revolves  slowly,  and  drives  the 
bottom  series  of  fluted  rollers,  marked  A,  through  the  gearing  shown 
by  dotted  lines  at  D.  The  silk  is  spread  thinly  on  the  latticed  feeder 
at  the  point  indicated  by  C,  and  is  gradually  worked  through  the 
machine  between  each  set  of  fluted  rollers  A,  E. 

The  chief  purpose  is  to  crush,  bruise,  and  soften  all  hard,  matted 
portions  of  silk,  and  such  is  well  effected  by  means  of  these  rollers 
and  their  springs  B.  The  best  results  are  obtained  by  having  the 
silk  moistened  before  feeding  into  the  machine,  and,  if  necessary,  it 
may  be  put  through  several  times.  Should  the  silk  have  been  in  the 
carbonising  chamber  prior  to  treatment  through  this  machine,  the 
process  will  tend  to  pulverise  all  vegetable  matter  into  powder,  but 
the  waste  must  be  passed  through  the  machine  whilst  in  a  dry  state, 
i.e.  straight  from  the  carbonising  chamber. 


CHAPTEE    VII 

THE  OPENING  AND  DRESSING  OF  WASTES  (COMBING) 

COCOON  BEATING. — All  silks,  whether  schapped,  boiled,  or  worked  with- 
out either  of  these  processes,  are  better  for  putting  through  what  is 
termed  a  cocoon  beater,  one  of  which  is  shown  in  Figs.  39  and  40. 
This  machine  comprises  a  large  disc  A,  revolved  by  means  of  pulleys 


FIG.  39. — Cocoon  beater. 

E  and  K  geared  into  the  wheel  C.  On  the  disc  are  rods  radiating 
from  centre  to  circumference,  and  under  these  rods  the  silk  is  placed. 
The  whips  D,  which  are  fastened  on  the  belt  G,  thrash  or  beat  the 
silk  S,  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  The  machine  is  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  operator  by  means  of  the  handle  H,  which  is  connected 
to  main  driving  pulleys  J,  the  driving  pulleys  being  shown  by  dotted 
lines. 

Some  classes  of  cocoons  are  worked  without  boiling  or  schapping, 
but  the  fibres  need  loosening,  and  the  silk  must  be  beaten  to  become 
freed  from  the  chrysalis  and  wormy  matter.  The  cocoon  beating  or 
thrashing  machine  opens,  softens,  and  renders  flexible  any  kind  of 
waste,  and  inflates  the  cocoons  so  that  the  work  of  the  succeeding 

74 


THE   OPENING  AND   DRESSING  OF   WASTES      75 

machines  is  rendered  easier,  and  better  results  are  attained  in  yield 
of  silk  and  length  of  fibre. 

The  attendant  is  generally  a  female,  who  stands  before  the  disc 
A,  with  the  bulk  of  the  material  to  be  treated  within  her  reach.  She 
disengages  the  small  rods  which  radiate  from  the  centre j  of  the  disc, 
and  then  spreads  the  silk  S  on  that  disc,  and  replaces  the  rods,  which 
are  held  firmly  on  the  material  by  means  of  balancing  weights  or 
springs.  The  disc  revolves,  so  that  the  silk  presents  itself  continually 
under  the  action  of  the  whips  D,  and  after  a  turn  or  two,  without 
stopping  the  machine  (which  runs  very  slowly),  the  worker  raises  the 
rods  and  turns  over  the  material,  so  that  both  sides  have  a  proper 


FIG.  40.— Cocoon  beater. 

beating.     When  sufficiently  done,  the  treated  silk  is  replaced  by  a 
new  supply,  and  the  operation  proceeds  as  before. 

The  average  speed  of  the  machine  is  about  120  revolutions  per 
minute  of  the  pulleys  E,  which  gives  one  turn  per  minute  to 
the  disc  carrying  the  material.  The  length  of  time  for  properly 
beating  the  silk  is  from  two  to  four  minutes,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  material  and  the  degree  of  degummiug.  The  action 
of  the  whip  can  be  regulated  by  the  height  of  a  cushion  placed  at  F, 
and  this  cushion  also  relieves  the  strain  caused  by  the  passage  of  the 
whip  over  the  little  pulley  B.  The  production  of  such  a  machine 
is  estimated  at  250  Ib.  per  day  for  cocoons,  and  200  Ib.  for  wastes 
(degummed  or  schapped). 


76 


SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 


OPENING. — After  this  beating,  the  silk  presents  a  more  loose 
appearance,  but  is  still  in  lumps  of  tangled  fibre,  to  straighten  which 
it  is  necessary  to  pass  it  through  another  machine  known  as  a 
cocoon  or  waste  opener,  which  places  the  individual  fibres  in  a  more 
parallel  position.  Fig.  41  shows  such  an  opening  or  lapping  machine 
for  cocoons  and  waste.  A  is  a  latticed  feeder  on  to  which  the  silk  S 
is  placed.  This  feeder  carries  the  silk  to  the  rollers  or  porcupines  B, 
which  grip  it  firmly,  and  at  the  same  time  feed  it  very  slowly  to  the 
large  drum  C.  This  drum,  being  covered  with  fine  steel  teeth,  and 
revolving  at  a  great  speed,  tends  to  draw  the  silk  on  to  its  teeth  in 
straight  and  parallel  fibres.  D  and  K  are  smaller  rollers  covered  with 
steel  teeth,  E  is  a  brush,  and  G  are  stripping  rollers. 

Fig.  42  is  a  lapping  machine  for  knubs  and  waste,  and  is  essen- 


FIG.  41. — Opening  machine  for  cocoons. 

tially  the  same  in  most  parts  as  the  one  just  described.  In  place, 
however,  of  the  feed  or  porcupine  rollers  being  like  those  in  Fig.  41, 
the  silk  is  fed  on  to  the  large  drum  C  by  means  of  porcupine  sheets  A 
and  B,  while  the  brush  E  is  altered  as  to  position.  Both  machines 
are  always  well  covered,  as  shown  in  Fig.  42,  by  a  casing  H,  and  if  the 
silk  is  very  dusty  these  casings  are  connected  to  a  dust  trunk,  and 
the  dust  withdrawn  by  means  of  a  fan.  Both  machines  work  in 
the  same  manner.  A  given  wreight  of  silk,  wThich  may  or  may  not 
have  been  thrashed,  is  entrusted  to  the  workman,  who  spreads  it  on 
a  given  space  on  the  feeder,  which  then  carries  it  slowly  forward 
towards  the  big  drum.  This  drum  is  covered  with  steel  teeth  set  in 
vulcanised  rubber  (Fig.  43),  so  that  they  are  slightly  pliable,  but  still 
sufficiently  firm  for  the  work  they  have  to  do.  The  drum  revolves  at 


THE   OPENING   AND   DRESSING   OF   WASTES      77 

a  high  speed,  and  as  the  silk  projects  through  the  feeding  rollers  or 
porcupine  sheets,  it  is  caught  and  pulled  forward  by  the  quickly 
passing  teeth  of  the  large  drum  C,  which  so  opens  out  the  tangles 
until  a  portion  is  pulled  through  the  feeding  rollers  and  spread 


FIG.  42.— Opening  machine  for  waste. 

evenly  and  thinly  around  the  drum.  The  few  portions  of  silk,  which 
are  either  lumpy  or  so  short  that  they  slip  too  quickly  through  the 
retaining  rollers  (and  so  on  to  the  teeth  in  matted  pieces),  are  caught 
by  the  small  rollers  D  or  K  (also  covered  with  teeth)  and  opened  out 


FIG.  43.— Opening  machine  teeth. 

by  them.  As  silk  is  very  fluffy,  light,  and  liable  to  remain  on  the 
points  of  the  pins,  brushes  E  are  placed  at  different  points,  which 
revolve  against  the  big  drum,  and  so  press  the  silk  down  into  the 
teeth,  leaving  the  points  of  the  teeth  free  to  do  their  work  at  each 


78  SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 

revolution  of  the  large  drum.  The  hard  small  bits  of  silk,  dirt,  and 
chrysalis  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  machine,  and  can  easily  be  removed 
afterwards.  When  the  necessary  weight  of  silk  has  run  on  to  the 
large  drum,  the  workman  stops  the  machine,  opens  the  cover  from 
behind,  and  cuts  the  silk  (now  called  a  lap)  with  a  knife  in  the  part 
of  the  drum  not  covered  with  the  pins  J,  and  follows,  with  the  knife, 
the  axle  of  the  drum.  He  then  disengages  the  upper  part  of  the 
lap  in  sufficient  quantity  for  placing  between  the  stripping  rollers  G, 
to  which  he  gives  a  rotary  motion  which  withdraws  the  lap  from 
the  big  drum.  The  stripping  rollers  G,  having  the  silk  S  between 
them,  are  revolved  in  the  direction  shown  by  arrows  in  Fig.  43, 
and  the  lap  is  so  strong  that  it  pulls  round  the  big  drum,  thus 
freeing  itself  from  the  teeth. 

Filling. — The  lap  produced  by  the  opener  is  passed  forward  to 


FIG.  44. — Filling  engine. 

a  filling  engine,  which  at  first  sight  seems  to  be  like  the  opener,  but 
the  feed  rollers  are  stronger,  or  are  replaced  by  strong  porcupine  sheets, 
and  exercise  a  strong  grip  on  the  silk.  The  difference  between  the 
opener  and  filler  is  in  the  setting  of  the  teeth  or  combs,  which,  instead 
of  being  all  around  the  drum,  as  in  the  opener,  are  placed  only  in 
rows,  each  row  from  4  to  9  in.  apart,  the  teeth  being  about  half  an 
inch  from  one  another.  They  are  set  on  the  face  of  the  drum,  each 
row  of  teeth  following  the  same  line  as  the  axle.  Silk  which  may 
not  have  passed  through  the  opener  must  be  put  through  this  process. 
Figs.  44  and  45  show  the  machine,  and  the  following  is  a  description 
of  its  action  : — 

A  lap  of  silk  from  the  opener,  or  a  weighed  portion  of  unlapped 
silk,  is  put  on  the  feeder  A  in  a  given  space,  and  travels  slowly  into 
the  porcupines  C.  The  big  drum  B  revolves  quickly,  and  the  rows  of 
combs  D  pull  a  small  portion  of  the  silk  from  the  porcupine  rollers  C, 


THE   OPENING  AND   DRESSING   OF   WASTES      79 


until  by  continual  revolving  the  whole  drum  is  covered  uniformly 
with  silk.  When  the  portion  placed  on  the  feeder  is  exhausted,  the 
machine  is  stopped  and  the  silk  cut  with  a  knife  or  scissors  at  a  point 
P  between  each  set  of  teeth,  thus  making  a  fringe  of  silk  hooked  on 


FIG.  45. — Filling  engine. 

to  the  pins.  The  porcupine  roller  R  straightens  any  lumps  which 
adhere  to  the  comb,  and  picks  up  short  portions  of  silk.  The  brush 
E  transfers  such  silk  from  the  porcupine  roller  back  again  to  the 
tooth  of  the  large  drum. 


ID- 


FIG.  46. — Dressing  boards. 

When  the  attendant  has  so  cut  all  the  silk  on  the  drum  (which 
drum  is  arranged  to  be  easily  thrown  out  of  gear  with  the  feeding 
rollers  or  porcupines  and  then  turned  by  hand),  he  picks  up  a  hinged 
board  called  a  bookboard  (Fig.  46),  places  the  silk  in  between  its 
two  sides,  closes  them  tightly  together,  pulls  gently  towards  himself 


8o  SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 

whilst  standing  in  front  of  the  large  drum,  and  so  strips  the  silk  off 
the  pins.  Care  is  taken  to  keep  the  bookboards  firmly  pressed  to- 
gether so  as  to  retain  all  the  silk,  shown  at  S  Fig  46.  Another 
method  of  stripping  the  pins  is  by  means  of  a  small  wood  rod  about 
28  in.  long  and  J  in.  diameter.  The  silk  being  cut  into  the  fringe 
form  on  the  filling  engine,  the  wood  rod,  first  dipped  in  a  soapy  solu- 
tion to  make  the  silk  adhere,  is  placed  on  the  end  of  the  silk  fibres 
and  rolled  towards  the  workman,  thus  wrapping  round  itself  the  silk 
until  all  the  length  of  fibre  is  on  the  stick  or  rod.  Then  a  good  pull 
towards  the  attendant  clears  the  pins.  Fig.  47  shows  (end  view)  at  A 
the  board  stripping,  and  at  B  the  stick  stripping. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  bookboards  are  hollowed  in  the  middle, 
as  shown  at  C  in  Fig.  46,  which  hollowing  is  to  enable  the  workman 
to  handle  them  easily.  They  are  usually  about  28  in.  long  and 


FIG.  47. — Stripping. 

5  to  7  in.  deep  at  D  and  about  J  in.  thick ;  that  is,  when  compressed 
or  closed  into  the  form  of  a  book,  the  two  sides  are  each  J  in.  thick. 
Each  inside  edge  is  covered  with  a  strip  of  roller  cloth  E,  about  J  to 
J  in.  wide,  to  cause  the  silk  to  be  more  firmly  held  between  the  two 
sides. 

It  is  perhaps  well  to  point  out  that  all  the  operations  described  up 
to  this  point  have  been,  in  the  first  place,  to  rid  the  silk  of  gum  or  to 
soften  the  fibres,  so  that  they  are  pliable  and  fairly  well  separated 
from  each  other.  In  the  second  place,  the  tangled  lumps  or  masses  of 
crossed  fibres  have  been  beaten,  suppled,  and  opened.  The  opening 
machinery  treats  the  silk  very  gently,  and  the  setting  of  the  porcu- 
pines or  feed  rollers  in  relation  to  the  working  drum  or  cylinder  is 
regulated  by  the  quality  of  the  silk  (by  quality  is  meant  the  kind  of 
fibre  or  waste).  For  instance,  a  cocoon  waste  would  take  far  more 
opening  than  a  European  gum  waste,  so  the  teeth  or  combs  on  the 


THE   OPENING  AND   DRESSING  OF   WASTES      81 

cylinder  of  the  openers  have  to  be  fine  or  coarse,  set  pliable  or  other- 
wise, in  accordance  with  the  length  and  strength  of  the  fibre  to  be 
worked.  The  shorter  and  more  tender  the  silk,  the  more  gentle  must 
be  the  treatment  it  has  on  these  machines,  as  the  object  is  to  obtain 
as  great  a  proportion  of  long  fibre  as  possible.  The  lap  of  silk  from 
the  opener  is  weighed  before  being  placed  on  the  feeding  sheet  of  the 
filling  engine,  because  it  is  necessary  that  each  strip  of  silk  from  the 
filling  engine  comb  should  be  nearly  the  same  weight. 

The  function  of  the  filling  engine  is  to  still  further  open  out  the 
silk,  and  to  lay  the  fibres  more  parallel  to  each  other.  Then  the 
setting  of  the  teeth  or  combs  in  rows,  a  certain  distance  apart,  is  for 
the  purpose  of  commencing  to  equalise  the  lengths  of  the  fibre.  The 
way  silk  waste  is  produced  means  that  some  fibres  are  cut  and  broken 
into  lengths,  varying  from  J  in.  to  30  or  40  in.,  and  it  is  obvious 
that  these  lengths  must  be  separated  to  enable  a  yarn  to  be  spun. 
The  longest  fibres  are  useless,  being  too  long,  so  they  must  be  cut ; 
the  short  fibres  must  also  be  got  out,  or  they  spoil  a  yarn. 

The  distance  from  point  to  point  of  the  teeth  P  in  the  filling 
engine  (Fig.  44)  gives  the  length  of  the  longest  fibres  deemed  best 
to  work,  and  that  distance  is  regulated  by  the  nature  of  the  silk 
waste.  A  waste  which  will  work  long — like  Swiss,  China,  and  most 
European  gum  wastes — is  put  on  an  engine  with  teeth  set  in  rows 
from  9  to  12  in.  apart,  whilst  a  waste  matted  together  like  steam 
waste,  and  at  the  same  time  soft  and  fine  in  fibre,  needs  the  rows 
only  to  be  6  to  7  in.  apart. 

The  speed  of  the  large  cylinder  of  the  openers  and  fillers  can  be 
regulated  in  relation  to  the  speed  of  delivery  of  the  feed  rollers  or 
porcupines,  and  it  is  very  essential  to  watch  this  point — to  see,  on 
the  one  hand,  that  the  silk  does  not  go  on  in  lumps ;  or,  on  the  other 
hand,  that  it  is  not  pulled  to  pieces.  The  weight  of  the  silk  fed  to 
the  machine  in  a  certain  time,  and  the  thickness  in  which  it  is  placed 
on  the  feeding  sheet,  all  depend  on  the  nature  of  the  silk  and  its 
previous  treatment.  It  should,  however,  never  be  forgotten  that  the 
feed  must  be  uniform.  Each  revolution  of  the  large  cylinder  should 
draw  on  to  each  row  of  teeth  an  equally  sized  fine  film  of  fibre,  and 
the  brush  E  (Fig.  44)  should  be  placed  so  that  it  will  brush  that  film 
down  to  the  root  of  the  tooth,  keeping  the  point  free  to  work,  and  at 
the  same  time  helping  to  keep  straight  the  fibre,  and  to  make  a  hard, 
solid  strip,  each  strip  being  of  the  same  thickness  and  weight. 

Dressing. — Attention  and  care  in  opening  and  filling  is  amply 
rewarded  by  the  result  of  the  next  process — silk  dressing — which  is 
the  most  important  of  any  single  process  in  silk  spinning.  It  is 
equivalent  in  silk  to  wool  combing  in  the  worsted  trade ;  but  whilst 
both  industries  began  their  dressing  or  combing  in  much  the  same 
way,  they  are  now  widely  different  in  all  respects.  Whilst  WTOO! 
combing  is  comparatively  a  cheap  process,  silk  dressing  is  an 
6 


82 


SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 


expensive  operation ;  in  fact,  it  is  the  most  costly  of  any  single  pro- 
cess throughout  a  silk  waste  spinning  establishment.  Of  all  textile 
fibres  silk  is  the  most  valuable,  by  reason  of  its  length  and  strength, 
coupled  with  its  fine  fibre  and  lustre.  The  shorter  the  fibres  com- 


FIG.  48.— Heckle. 

posing  a  silk  yarn,  the  less  lustre  will  that  yarn  show ;  whilst  the 
longer  the  fibres,  the  more  lustrous  the  yarns. 

The  object  of  silk  dressing  is,  in  the  first  place,  to  sort  out  the 
different  lengths  of  fibre ;  and,  secondly,  to  clear  such  fibres  of  nibs 


FIG.  49. — Flat  dressing  frame  (side  section). 

and  noils.  The  longer  fibres  are  used  for  the  best  yarns  and  the 
shorter  for  inferior  kinds.  The  old-time  system  of  dressing  was,  of 
course,  a  hand  process.  Each  worker  had  heckles  or  combs,  like  the 
one  shown  in  Fig.  48,  supplied  to  him,  through  the  teeth  of  which  a 
portion  of  silk  was  drawn.  The  short  silk  and  noils  and  nibs 


THE   OPENING  AND   DRESSING  OF   WASTES      83 


adhered  to  the  teeth,  until  by  a  continued  "repetition  of  the  process, 
the  silk  held  by  the  worker  was  straight  and  the  fibre  parallel  and 
free  from  short  silk  and  nibs.  Then  the  portion  dressed  was  held  by 
the  workman,  and  the  portion  previously  held  in  his  hand  put  through 
the  combing  process.  When  both  ends  were  properly  combed,  that 
portion  of  silk  was  placed  on  one  side  for  spinning,  and  the  short 
fibres  and  noils  were  considered  waste. 

The  reversing  of  the  ends  tested  the  skill  of  the  operator,  as  the 
teeth  of  the  comb  had  to  strike  the  silk  at  a  point  (the  combed  half 
being  held  by  the  workman)  so  as  to  ensure  the  middle  of  the  silk 
being  properly  combed  out ;  otherwise  the  centre  of  the  lengths  of 


FIG.  50. — Flat  dressing  frame  with  stripping  drum. 

fibre  would  be  rough  and  woolly  and  have  a  large  amount  of  short 
fibre  left  in  them,  making  it  impossible  to  have  a  level  yarn. 

This  crude  method  is,  of  course,  long  since  dead,  and  mechanical 
means  are  now  employed  to  give  the  same  effect.  There  are  three 
machines  in  everyday  use,  and  known  respectively  as  the  flat  dressing 
frame,  the  circular  frame,  and  the  continuous  flat  dressing  frame. 

Flat  dressing, — The  flat  dressing  frame  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  49, 
in  side  elevation,  and  Fig.  50,  w7hile  Fig.  51  gives  the  end  elevation. 
It  comprises  a  single  endless  sheet  or  web  A,  carrying  a  series  of 
combs  B  and  cards  C,  travelling  horizontally  in  the  direction  marked 
by  the  arrow  around  a  pair  of  rollers  D  and  Z.  There  is  also  a  box 


84  SILK  WASTE   SPINNING 

E,  called  an  "  inframe,"  in  which  the  bookboards  of  filled  silk  are 
placed,  each  bookboard  F  being  separated  from  the  next  by  a  single 
board  G,  somewhat  thicker,  and  called  a  slider.  The  inframe  is 
swivelled  on  the  centre  H,  so  that  it  can  be  easily  turned  right 
round,  and  it  is  supported  on  a  movable  carriage  J,  to  enable  the 
dresser  to  push  it  under  the  moving  combs  or  to  pull  it  from  under 
them  for  taking  out  the  combed  silk,  etc.  In  addition  to  the  support 
at  H,  the  cams  K  and  Y  support  each  end  of  the  inframe,  and  are 
also  used  to  vertically  lower  or  raise  the  frame  of  silk  into  contact 
with  the  working  combs  and  cards.  This  is  effected  very  gradually 
and  automatically  by  means  of  the  ratchet  L  and  ratchet  wheel  M, 


FIG.  51. — Flat  dressing  frame  (end  view). 

every  revolution  of  the  roller  Z  thus  moving  the  ratchet  wheel  M  one 
tooth  forward,  and  by  means  of  the  various  wheels,  shafts,  etc.,  shown 
in  the  plan  and  side  elevation,  Fig.  52,  the  inframe  is  raised  to 
any  desired  height.  If  the  raising  motion  is  not  performed  quickly 
enough  by  these  means,  the  dresser  can  throw  the  ratchet  out  of 
gear,  and  by  means  of  the  wheels  a,  /;,  r,  d  and  N,  O,  Q  turn  the  in- 
frame  up  or  down  at  any  desired  speed. 

The  combs  B  and  the  cards  C  are  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  53, 
and  it  may  be  here  said  that  the  combs  are  fixtures,  being  bolted 
securely  on  to  the  webbing,  whilst  the  cards  are  movable,  being  in 
use  only  at  intervals  during  the  dressing  operation.  They  are  taken 


THE   OPENING  AND   DRESSING   OF   WASTES      85 

on    and   off  whilst    the  machine    is    in    motion,    and    therefore  the 
V-shaped  card  back  A  (Fig.  53)  is  bolted  to  the  webbing,  so  that  the 

d 


FIG.  52.— Flat  dressing  frame  lifting  gear. 

card  itself  will  easily  slide  on  and  off,  but  by  reason  of  the  V-shaped 
holder  cannot  fall  off  when  travelling  point  downwards  and  working 


w 


FIG.  53. — Combs,  cards,  and  dressed  silk. 

on  the  silk.  Both  cards  and  combs  are  slightly  tilted  from  back  to 
front  to  prevent  the  silk  choking  the  front  teeth.  The  comb  wire  is 
set  in  vulcanised  rubber,  and  is  made  pliable  or  otherwise,  set  coarse 


86 


SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 


or  fine,  long  or  short,  at  the  whim  of  the  silk  dressing  foreman  or 
mill  manager.  Coarse  silks  need  a  strong  wire  and  fine  silks  a  fine 
wire,  while  the  style  of  filling  and  boiling  has  a  great  deal  to  do  with 
the  wire  necessary  to  be  used  for  the  best  dressing. 

The  webbing  is  made  of  hemp,  and  as  this  will  shrink  or  other- 
wise in  accordance  with  the  state  of  the  weather,  the  rollers  D  and 
Z  are  fixed  in  movable  brackets,  so  enabling  the  webbing  to  be 


-c8v 


~irz 

FIG.  54. — Infranie. 


C    A 


slackened  or  tightened  as  required.  To  ensure  good  dressing,  the 
web  should  be  kept  fairly  tight.  It  must  also  be  perfectly  level  for 
its  entire  length  from  centre  to  centre  of  the  rollers ;  and  to  prevent 
any  danger  of  "  bagging "  in  the  middle  of  the  web,  the  working 
combs  project  at  each  end  on  to  shelving  P  (Figs.  49  and  51),  which 
is  arranged  from  end  to  end  on  each  side  of  the  dressing  frame.  These 


FIG.  55. — Bookboards  and  sliders. 

can  be  raised  or  lowered  to  accommodate  different  thicknesses  of 
comb  backs,  and  to  allow  for  wear  and  tear.  The  combs  and  cards 
are  kept  flat  and  rigid  and  at  a  proper  angle  by  means  of  the  wedge 
W  and  the  shoe  X  (Fig.  53). 

The  inframe  is  shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  54.  A  is  a  cast-iron  frame, 
a  partial  end  section  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  55.  It  is  divided  in 
the  middle  by  a  strong  metal  partition  B,  called  the  middle  bar, 
which  is  capped  with  wood.  At  each  end  of  the  frame  is  a  pair  of 
screws  S,  to  enable  the  bookboards  full  of  silk  to  be  compressed, 


THE   OPENING  AND   DRESSING  OF   WASTES      87 


for  these  latter  have  to  be  compressed  sufficiently  tight  to  prevent 
the  silk  being  drawn  out  by  the  action  of  the  working  combs.  Fig. 
55  shows  the  position  of  the  sliders  at  S,  and  also  the  method  of 
fixing  on  the  cast-iron  frame  A. 

Th§  first  operation  in  silk  dressing  is  filling  the  inframe  with 
silk,  and  for  this  the  strips  of  silk  are  taken  from  the  filling  engine 
in  bookboards,  as  shown  at  A  in  Fig.  56  (half  a  bookboard).  These 
are  placed  in  the  inframe,  commencing  against  the  middle  bar,  and 
then  a  slider  is  pushed  close  to  the  bookboard;  the  second  book- 
board  is  placed  against  the  first  slider,  and  so  the  frame  is  gradually 
filled.  When  full,  the  screws  S  are  operated,  each  screw  .for  a  short 
space.  Then  the  boards  of  silk  are  all  tapped  down,  until  their  tops 
are  level  with  the  surface  of  the  sliders,  as  shown  at  B,  Fig.  56,  and 


1 


FIG.  56. — Dressed  and  not  dressed 
strips  of  silk. 


FIG.  57.—  Turning-in  board. 


the  screws  again  operated  until  the  silk  is  held  fast  between  each 
half  of  the  bookboard. 

The  frame,  full  of  silk,  supported  on  its  carriage  J,  is  traversed 
on  the  rails  R  (Figs.  49  and  54)  by  their  wheels  T  under  the  combs, 
which  are  then  set  in  motion.  The  operator,  by  means  of  the  hand- 
wheel  N,  raises  the  frame  until  the  silk  touches  the  teeth  of  the 
combs,  and  then  he  puts  in  gear  the  ratchet  wheel  and  allows  it  to 
raise  the  silk  deeper  and  deeper  into  the  moving  combs.  When  the 
teeth  have  combed  about  half-way  through  the  depth  of  silk,  as  shown 
at  D  in  Fig.  53,  the  inframe  is  let  down,  pulled  from  under  the 
web,  turned  opposite  end  about,  and  the  silk  which  lay  in  the 


88  SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 

direction  of  the  points  of  the  combs  is  reversed  so  that  the  rough 
uncombed  portion  is  uppermost  (E,  Fig.  53).  The  combing  operation 
is  then  repeated  until  the  teeth  have  gone  through  the  silk  and  both 
sides  of  the  tuft  are  combed  through. 

The  inframe  is  then  again  let  down,  the  carriage  and  frame  are 
pulled  from  under  the  working  combs,  the  screws  loosened,  and  the 
boards  of  silk  freed.  The  dresser  takes  out  a  bookboard  of  silk 
and  places  it  on  a  table  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  57  in  the  position  A, 
thus  allowing  the  dressed  portion  of  silk  to  project  over  a  cast-iron 
gauge  B  (C  is  plan  of  same),  which  measures  J  to  J  in.  square  by 
30  to  36  in.  long.  The  dressed  portion  is  then  gripped  by  another 
pair  of  bookboards  D,  so  that  the  undressed  ends  project  for 
combing,  as  shown  at  F.  All  the  silk  is  "  turned  "  in  this  method, 
then  replaced  in  the  inframe,  and  the  preceding  processes  of  combing 
gone  through.  When  completed,  and  whilst  the  inframe  is  almost  at 
its  highest  point  in  relation  to  the  working  combs,  the  fine  cards  C 
are  placed  in  their  respective  positions,  and  the  silk  subjected  to  their 
action  for  several  minutes  for  the  purpose  of  removing  nibs  from  the 
fibre.  The  combs  straighten  and  open  the  fibre,  whilst  the  cards 
smooth  it  and  remove  rough,  hard  places. 

When  the  silk  is  sufficiently  cleared  the  inframe  is  let  down,  the 
silk  again  "  turned "  in  the  boards,  replaced  in  the  frame,  and  the 
ends,  which  at  first  were  combed  only,  are  then  subjected  to  the 
finishing  touch  of  cards  and  combs.  If  properly  "  turned,"  the  silk 
presents  the  appearance  shown  at  C  in  Fig.  56,  all  the  fibres  being 
straight  and  parallel  from  end  to  end,  no  short  fibres  being  left  in  the 
centre  of  the  tufts  of  silk.  If  not  turned  properly,  nor  properly 
dressed,  short  crossed  silk  is  left  as  shown  at  Fig.  56,  under  line 
D.  Short  silk  may  also  be  caused  by  running  the  combs  and  cards 
too  hard  on  the  silk,  and  then  the  ends  are  broken  and  cut  as  shown 
at  C  in  Fig.  53.  In  turning  in  the  boards,  the  dresser  should  never 
be  allowed  to  raise  the  bookboards  above  the  gauge  B  higher  than 
shown  by  the  dotted  lines  E  in  Fig.  57,  or  he  will  most  probably 
turn  short,  and  bad  dressing  will  result.  When  the  dresser  considers 
the  silk  dressed,  he  empties  it  from  the  bookboards  and  places  it 
straight  in  a  box  or  tin.  The  dressed  fibres  resulting  from  the  strips 
taken  from  the  filling  engine  are  called  "  first  drafts,"  meaning  the 
"  longest  fibres." 

It  will  be  understood  that  the  tufts  of  silk  which  gather  on  the 
combs,  as  shown  at  Fig.  49,  are  usually  stripped  from  the  combs  by 
the  silk  dresser  whilst  the  combs  are  at  work  and  during  their 
passage  from  W  to  X,  and  they  present  practically  the  same  appear- 
ance as  the  "  strips "  from  the  filling  engine.  Bookboards  are 
used  exactly  as  depicted  at  A  in  Fig.  47.  These  strips  are  combed 
and  dressed  in  the  manner  described  for  first  drafts,  and  the  resulting 
dressed  silk  is  called  a  "second  draft" — i.e.  the  second  length  of 


f  ', 

THE   OPENING   AND   DRESSING   OF   WASTES      89 

fibre.  The  .silk  accumulating  on  the  combs  in  this  operation  forms 
the  third  draft,  and  all  the  respective  processes  are  gone  through  in 
the  same  manner  as  for  first  drafts,  except  that  as  the  silk  gets  shorter 
in  fibre  for  each  operation,  the  gauge  in  turning  will  be  less.  Six  or 
seven  drafts  of  silk  are  thus  obtained  from  the  strips  of  silk  originally 
brought  from  the  filling  engine,  and  when  the  fibres  are  too  short 
to  make  it  worth  while  dressing  any  longer,  the  strips  on  the  working 
combs  are  taken  off  by  bookboards  and  then  put  on  one  side  and  sold 
as  noils. 

Whilst  board  stripping  is  the  usual  method  of  clearing  the  work- 
ing combs,  a  large  drum  can  be  used  as  shown  at  T  in  the  upper 
portion  of  Figs".  49  and  51.  By  this  means  the  combs  are  always 
kept  clean.  The  web  is  supported  by  the  roller  U,  Fig.  49.  The 
large  drum  is  covered  with  fine  wire  filleting,  and  is  set  so  that  the 
points  of  the  wire  just  lift  the  tufts  of  silk  out  of  the  working  combs 
as  they  pass  over  the  top  of  the  roller  U.  The  silk  is  pressed  into 
the  wires  by  a  brush  V,  and  when  the  drum  has  sufficient  silk  on  its 
wires,  forming  a  solid  lap,  it  is  stripped  off  by  means  of  the  rollers  e 
and  the  leathers/.  The  stripping  drum  is  driven  by  means  of  pulleys 
fixed  on  the  end  of  the  shaft  of  cylinder,  as  shown  in  Fig.  50. 

In  the  case  where  the  large  drum  is  used  for  stripping  the  working 
combs  the  lap  from  the  former  has  to  be  refilled  for  dressing  on  a 
small  filling  engine,  which  will  be  described  later.  As  each  successive 
draft  of  silk  gets  shorter  in  length  and  finer  in  fibre,  it  is  usual  to 
adopt  different  combs  for  the  shorter  fibres  than  for  the  long  drafts, 
and  consequently  silk  dressing  machines  are  worked  on  the  three-frame 
system  illustrated  by  the  sketch  Fig.  58.  In  this  plan  1,  2,  and  3 
are  dressing  frames,  known  respectively  as  first,  second,  and  third 
frames.  A  is  the  inframe ;  T  is  the  tabling,  always  fixed  at  one  end 
of  the  dressing  frame  and  used  by  the  dresser  as  a  storage  place  for 
his  empty  and  full  boards,  and  also  to  turn  the  silk  upon ;  R  are  the 
rails  on  which  the  inframe  traverses  to  and  fro,  under  and  out,  of  the 
dressing  frame.  The  distance  from  2  to  3  on  the  one  hand  and  1  to 
3  on  the  other  is  sufficient  to  allow  the  inframe  to  be  pulled  from 
under  the  combs  and  turned  completely  round  on  its  centre  pin,  in 
order  that  each  side  of  the  tufts  of  silk  may  be  presented  to  the 
action  of  the  working  combs,  etc. — i.e.  the  end  marked  E  would  be 
under  B  in  the  dressing  frame  at  the  first  running-up  of  the  silk  into 
the  combs,  and  the  end  F  at  the  second  rising  of  the  silk. 

The  three  frames  are  in  charge  of  an  operative  called  "first 
framer,"  who  has  under  him  two  others,  "  second  and  third  framers," 
the  last  named  being  a  youth.  As  the  names  imply,  the  operatives 
attend  to  the  respective  machines  1,  2,  and  3.  The  first  framer  fills 
the  boards  from  the  filling  engine,  places  them  in  his  inframe,  and 
dresses  the  silk  they  hold.  He  strips  the  combs  frequently,  and  hands 
the  strippings  to  the  second  framer,  who  dresses  the  second  and  third 


9° 


SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 


drafts,  and  who  in  turn  hands  over  his  strippings  from  the  third  draft 
to  the  third  or  short  framer,  who  dresses  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth 
drafts.  When  dressing  the  last  draft  he  strips  the  combs  clean  at 
intervals,  these  strippings  being  known  in  the  trade  as  noils.  A  "fill 
of  silk" — i.e.  the  weight  spread  on  the  filling-engine  feeder — will 
weigh  about  3|  Ib.  for  an  engine  which  has  twenty  rows  of  teeth, 
making  twenty  strips  of  silk.  The  first  frame  will  have  ten  boards  in 
each  division  of  its  inframe,  thus  accommodating  the  twenty  strips 
from  the  filling  engine.  The  second  frame  will  have  twelve  boards  in 


FIG.  58. — Plan  of  set  of  flat  frames. 

each  division  of  its  inframe,  and  the  third  frame  fifteen  boards,  this 
increase  being  necessary ;  for  although  the  later  drafts  are  shorter  in 
length,  they  are  more  bulky,  being  very  light  and  fluffy,  and  conse- 
quently the  strips  of  silk  must  be  kept  light  in  weight  so  as  to  enable 
the  working  combs  to  dress,  and  not  cut  the  silk  to  pieces.  Each 
inframe  is  of  the  same  length,  and  to  hold  the  number  of  boards  the 
sliders  are  narrower  in  the  second  than  in  the  first  frame,  and  in  the 
third  than  in  the  second  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  boards  in  each 
frame. 

A  week's  work  for  these  three  frames  and  three  attendants  on  a 
usual  English  quality  would  be  approximately  as  follows  : — 

First  frame  receives  from  filling  engine  148  Ib.;  yields  first  drafts 
40  Ib. 

Second  frame  receives  strippings  from  first  frame  108  Ib. ;  yields 
second  drafts  27  Ib.,  and  third  drafts  18  Ib. 

Third  frame  receives  from  second  frame  63  Ib.,  and  yields  fourth 
drafts  9  Ib.,  fifth  drafts  7  Ib.,  and  sixth  drafts  5  Ib.,  leaving  42  Ib. 
noils. 

The  dressers  are  generally  paid  on  the  yield  of  drafts  per  week, 


THE   OPENING  AND   DRESSING   OF   WASTES      91 

but  the  costliness  of  the  operation  is  much  increased  on  account  of 
there  being  but  a  comparatively  small  percentage  of  dressed  silk  from 
the  original  weight  of  silk  waste  put  into  the  machines.  The  quality 
named  above  produces  in  percentage,  approximately,  as  follows  : — 

Fed  into 
Machine. 

From  filling,    148   Ib.    yields  27   per  cent,    of    1st    drafts    and    73    per 

cent,  strippings. 

1st  strips  of  108  Ib.  yields  25  per  cent,  of  2nd  drafts. 
2nd         ,,         811k      ,,      22          ,,  3rd  drafts. 

3rd         „         63  Ib.      „      16          ,,  4th  drafts. 

4th         ,,         54  Ib.      ,,      12          „          5th  and  6th  drafts  together. 

Thus,  by  assuming  that  the  first  framer  gets  30s.  per  week,  the 
second  and  third  framers  22s.  and  15s.  per  week  respectively,  the  cost 
per  Ib.  of  dressing — accepting  the  above  yields  and  percentages — will 
be  9d.  per  Ib.  on  No.  1  machine,  6d.  per  Ib.  on  No.  2,  and  nearly  9d. 
per  Ib.  on  No.  3,  or  about  8d.  per  Ib.  on  all  drafts  received  from  the 
machine.  As  silks  vary  very  much  in  yield,  the  cost  per  Ib.  varies 
accordingly.  A  high-class  European  gum  waste  will  yield  from  dis- 
charged waste  about  86  per  cent,  of  all  drafts  and  14  per  cent,  of 
noils,  whilst  a  low  Eastern  waste  will  yield  60  per  cent,  of  all  drafts 
and  40  per  cent,  noils. 

The  time  occupied  in  completely  dressing  a  frame  full  of  first 
drafts  is  about  1J  hour,  second  and  third  drafts  about  1  hour,  and 
fourth  to  sixth  drafts  about  50  minutes,  including  all  turning  of  silk 
boards.  The  speed  of  the  working  combs  is  about  60  per  minute 
passing  any  fixed  point.  This  slow  speed  is  necessary  to  ensure  the 
silk  being  combed  gently  so  as  to  keep  the  fibre  as  long  as  possible. 
If  run  too  quickly  the  combs  break  the  fibres,  the  friction  of  the  steel 
teeth  heating  the  silk  and  causing  it  to  break  off  short,  and  leading  to 
a  larger  yield  of  noils  and  less  drafts.  Then,  again,  if  the  combs 
were  running  quickly  the  workman  would  not  be  able  to  strip  them 
without  stopping  the  machine,  and  this  would  interfere  with  produc- 
tion and  consequently  increase  the  cost  of  dressing. 

Re-dressing. — If  a  yarn  is  required  extra  strong  and  very  level, 
many  spinners  resort  to  re-dressing.  The  wastes  used  are  European 
gum  wastes,  which  are  filled  and  dressed  in  the  gum  state — i.e.  not 
discharged.  This  gives  a  long  fibre  in  the  first  draft.  The  dressed 
silk  is  made  into  small  "  paps "  or  bunches  by  the  dresser  and  then 
taken  to  boil.  When  boiled  it  is  conditioned  in  the  usual  way.  Each 
pap  is  straightened  out,  placed  in  the  dressing  frame,  and  dressed 
exactly  as  an  ordinary  filled  silk.  In  this  way  the  silk  is  a  better 
average  length,  and  seeing  that  it  is  turned  over  the  gauge  so  much 
oftener  than  ordinary  dressed  silk,  it  is  more  free  from  short  fibres. 
Naturally  this  extra  work  makes  the  dressed  silk  more  costly,  and  so 
re-dressing  is  only  done  for  very  special  purposes. 


92 


SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 


Circular  dressing  frame. — It  is  natural  that  such  a  costly  process 
as  flat-frame  dressing  has  led  to  many  attempts  to  find  a  cheaper 
method.  Our  competitors  abroad  use  the  circular  dressing  frame 
because  of  its  capability  of  turning  out  a  large  weight  of  silk  at  a 
cheap  rate.  The  English  dresser  does  not  use  this  machine,  for 
whilst  admitting  its  productiveness,  it  damages  the  silk  and  gives  a 
lower  yield  per  cent,  of  drafts,  so  much  so  that  the  saving  in  wages  is 
more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  loss  of  3  or  4  per  cent,  of  drafts. 
Naturally  the  question  arises,  Why  this  difference  of  opinion  at  home 
and  abroad  1  The  answer  appears  to  be  that  the  foreigner  schappes 
his  silk  in  the  preparing  process,  and  by  leaving  a  small  percentage  of 


FIG.  59. — Circular  dressing  frame. 

natural  gum  on  the  fibre  protects  it  somewhat  from  the  severe  action 
of  the  working  combs  of  the  circular  dressing  frame,  whereas  when 
the  silk  is  fully  discharged  (as  is  the  English  custom)  it  is  very  tender, 
and  the  great  speed  at  which  the  circular  frame  combs  work  tears  the 
silk  to  pieces,  producing  more  noils  and  giving  a  worse  yield  of  dressed 
silk  or  drafts. 

Fig.  59  illustrates  the  circular  frame  in  side  elevation.  A  is  a 
large  drum  divided  into  five  sections,  each  furnished  with  boards  or 
sliders  B,  of  a  thickness  proportionate  to  the  length  of  silk  to  be 
dressed.  These  sliders  are  grooved  on  their  face,  and  are  placed  with 
the  grooves  in  juxtaposition,  as  shown  at  C.  Into  the  grooves  fit 
small  rods  of  wood  which  are  longer  than  the  sliders,  so  that  each 


•     f  } 

THE   OPENING  AND   DRESSING  OF   WASTES      93 

end  of  the  rod  projects  to  allow  of  their  manipulation.  As  the  larger 
drum  revolves  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow,  the  sliders  are  compressed 
and  opened  by  means  of  springs  S  and  levers  L.  Y  and  Z  are  the 
cylinders  or  working  combs ;  Y  is  designed  to  open  out  the  silk  and 
to  comb  almost  through  the  film,  while  Z  combs  the  other  side,  and 
being  of  finer  wire  also  clears  off  the  nibs  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
fine  cards  of  the  flat  frame.  The  working  combs  are  stripped  by 
means  of  the  stripping  rollers  E.  Each  comb  can  be  thrown  out  of 
gear  whilst  the  large  drum  is  revolving,  and  so  stopped  and  stripped 
of  its  silk,  which  has  been  pressed  down  hard  into  the  roots  of  the 
teeth  by  the  brushes  F. 

The  machine  needs  two  operatives,  the  dresser  and  his  assistant. 
The  dresser  standing  on  the  platform  P,  places  the  rods,  with  the  films 
of  silk  taken  from  the  filling  engine,  on  the  shelf  G.  The  machine  is 
set  in  motion,  the  large  drum  is  rotated  very  slowly,  the  section 
opposite  the  workman  is  open,  and  he  places  the  rods  of  silk — one  in 
each  groove  C — as  the  grooves  pass  before  him ;  but  on  the  first  turn 
of  the  machine  he  only  fills  half  the  section.  As  the  section  passes 
opposite  the  point  H,  the  sliders  are  automatically  locked  together 


FIG.  60. — Rod  stripping. 

and  the  silk  nipped  firmly  so  that  the  action  of  the  combing  cylinder 
Y,  which  revolves  quickly,  will  not  pull  out  the  silk  from  the  sliders. 
As  the  drum  moves  round  to  the  point  I,  the  sliders  are  unlocked, 
enabling  the  workman  to  turn  the  silk,  the  end  dressed  being  wrapped 
round  a  rod,  the  undressed  end  then  projecting  for  dressing.  The 
workman  also  fills  up  the  other  half  of  the  section  with  silk,  so  that 
on  the  drum's  second  turn  one  half  of  each  section  holds  silk  which 
is  completely  dressed — that  is,  both  ends  have  been  subjected  to  the 
combs,  while  the  other  half  has  silk  with  one  end  only  dressed.  The 
dressed  silk  is  removed  by  the  workman,  and  the  section  refilled  with 
silk  from  the  filling  engine ;  the  other  rods  of  silk  are  turned,  and  so 
the  process  goes  on,  each  revolution  presenting  a  half -section  of  com- 
pletely dressed  silk  to  the  workman  and  a  half-section  to  turn. 

A  method  of  stripping  the  silk  from  the  rods  is  shown  in  Fig.  60, 
which  represents  the  large  drum  travelling  in  the  direction  as  shown 
by  the  arrow.  A  is  a  cloth  laid  on  the  top  of  the  dressed  silk  and 
affixed  to  the  roller  D.  This  rod  is  placed  under  the  extreme  end  of 
the  first  film  of  silk  E  and  revolved  in  the  direction  of  arrow  F, 
which  causes  the  silk  to  be  wrapped  round  the  rod  and  pulls  the 


94 


SILK  WASTE   SPINNING 


entire  length  of  silk  off  the  rod  which  is  in  the  groove  C.  At  the 
same  time  the  first  film  entangles  the  second  film,  the  second  the 
third,  and  so  on,  and  as  the  workman  rolls  the  rod  D  round  and 
round  he  thus  draws  the  silk  off  the  rods  in  the  grooves  and  wraps  it 
inside  the  cloth  A,  so  forming  what  is  called  a  "  nappe  "  of  silk. 

The  speed  of  the  circular  frame  varies  considerably  in  accordance 
with  the  nature  of  the  silk  to  be  dressed.  The  large  drum  may  make 
from  one  revolution  in  6J  minutes  to  one  revolution  in  12  minutes. 
The  first  working  cylinder  may  be  run  from  70  to  80  revolutions  per 
minute,  and  the  second  cylinder  from  120  revolutions,  the  speed  of 
the  latter  necessitating  a  shorter  toothed  comb  than  the  former. 
This  extra  speed  and  finer  and  shorter  wire  are  most  important,  for 


FIG.  61. — Lap  filling  machine. 

without  them  the  dressed  silk  would  be  nibby  and  full  of  noils.  The 
relative  speed  of  the  working  combs  to  the  speed  of  the  large  drum 
needs  constant  watching,  as  the  secret  of  the  successful  use  of  these 
machines  would  appear  to  be  that  of  adapting  the  workers  to  give 
only  just  enough  dressing  to  open  out  the  silk  and  clear  the  nibs. 
Too  much  dressing  can  be  given,  either  by  setting  the  wire  too  close 
to  the  wooden  sliders  in  the  large  drum  and  so  cutting  the  silk,  or 
by  giving  such  a  great  speed  to  the  combs  that  they  tear  much  of  the 
silk  out  of  the  sliders  and  also  punish  the  fibre  too  much,  making  it 
extremely  tender  and  short  in  length.  On  the  other  hand,  too  slow  a 
speed  would  mean  perfectly  useless  silk,  for  the  fibre  would  not  be 
combed  through.  It  could,  of  course,  be  subjected  to  another  comb- 
ing by  allowing  it  to  go  round  again  in  the  large  drum,  but  the 


p  » 

THE   OPENING  AND   DRESSING  OF   WASTES      95 

production  of  the  machine  would  in  that  manner  be  decreased  and 
the  cost  of  the  resulting  dressed  silk  increased.  The  accumulation  of 
silk  on  the  working  cylinder  Z  (Fig.  59)  is  usually  composed  of  such 
short  fibre  that  it  is  put  on  one  side  as  noil;  but  the  silk  on  the 
working  cylinder  Y  (Fig.  59)  is  long  in  fibre,  and  after  being  stripped 
off  the  combs  by  means  of  stripping  rollers — which  deliver  it  in  the 
form  of  a  lap — it  is  put  through  a  small  filling  engine  (Fig.  61). 
This  machine  can  be  used  for  refilling  the  strips  or  laps  off  the  large 
stripping  drum  of  the  flat  dressing  frame,  and  its  construction  is  quite 
simple. 

A  is  the  feed  sheet  on  which  the  lap  of  silk  is  placed,  and  by 
which  it  is  carried  to  the  rollers  B,  C,  D,  E.  The  last  pair  of  these 
rollers  revolve  more  quickly  than  the  first  pair,  thus  drafting  the  silk 
and  loosening  the  fibres.  The  drum  F  is  furnished  with  four  rows  of 
combs  G,  and  revolved  in  the  direction  shown  by  the  arrow  at  a  speed 
greater  than  the  delivery  of  silk  from  the  feeding  rollers.  The  combs 
thus  draw  on  to  themselves  a  film  of  silk  at  each  revolution  of  the 
drum,  and  when  the  attendant  considers  them  full,  the  machine  is 
stopped  and  the  strip  taken  oft7  by  means  of  the  sticks  described 
previously  with  the  silk-filling  engine.  The  attendant  of  this  small 
filling  engine  also  looks  after  the  stripping  of  the  working  cylinders 
of  the  circular  dressing  frame,  and  keeps  the  dresser  fully  supplied 
with  the  sticks  of  filled  silk. 

The  dressing  frames  are  worked  in  pairs  or  fours,  one — called  the 
first  frame — receiving  the  silk  from  the  filling  engine  and  dressing 
first  and  second  lengths,  and  the  other  receiving  the  strips  from  the 
second  lengths  and  dressing  out  of  them  the  third  to  the  fifth  lengths. 
Some  qualities  of  silk  are  only  dressed  into  three  lengths,  and  the 
remaining  strip  is  taken  and  combed.  A  week's  work  on  four  machines 
is  enormous  compared  with  the  English  standards  of  flat-frame  dress- 
ing. A  first  frame  (circular)  will  yield  of  dressed  silk  from  400  to 
500  Ib.  per  week,  a  second  frame  from  200  to  300  lb.,  a  third  frame 
from  150  to  200  lb.,  and  a  fourth  frame  about  100  lb.  per  week  of 
fourth  and  fifth  drafts,  the  cost  per  pound  being  2d.  to  4d.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  the  foreign  rate  of  wages  is  low,  whilst  the  hours 
worked  are  long — say  twelve  hours  per  day  to  the  English  ten  hours. 

A  set  of  four  frames  appears  to  be  the  most  economical  manner  of 
arrangement,  and  the  method  of  work  would  then  be  :  The  large  filling 
engine  supplying  the  first  dressing  frame ;  the  first  dressing  yielding 
first  drafts,  and  the  strips  being  refilled  and  supplied  to  the  second 
frame ;  the  second  frame  yielding  second  drafts,  and  the  strips  refilled 
and  supplied  to  the  third  frame  ;  the  third  frame  yielding  third  drafts, 
and  the  resulting  strips  supplied  to  the  fourth  frame,  which  yields 
fourth  and  fifth  drafts,  the  last  strips  being  noils. 

Continuous  flat  dressing  frame. — This  is  of  recent  invention, 
and  is  designed  to  work  on  the  same  principles  as  the  ordinary  flat 


96 


SILK   WASTE    SPINNING 


frame,  with  the  large  production  of  the  circular  frame.     Fig.  62  gives 
the  end  elevation,  Fig.  63 A  the  side  elevation,  Fig.  63B  the  plan  of 


L 


one  of  these  machines,  and  Fig.  64  a  photograph  showing  the  machines 
in  work.     A,  B,  C,  D  are  four  endless  chains  or  sheets  passed  around 


",  . 

THE   OPENING  AND   DRESSING   OF   WASTES      97 


98  SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 

the  rollers  W,  X,  Y,  Z.  These  rollers  are  mounted  in  adjustable  bear- 
ings E  (only  shown  on  section  W)  on  the  framework  of  the  machine. 
The  sheets  around  the  rollers  W  and  X  are  supplied  with  combs  F, 
exactly  like  those  used  on  the  ordinary  flat  frame,  but  the  sheets  around 
Y  and  Z  are  supplied  with  both  cards  G  and  combs  F.  Each  pair  of 
rollers  carrying  the  sheets  of  combs  are  adjustably  arranged  to  different 
heights,  so  that  the  sheets  can  be  inclined  at  an  angle  to  the  silk  S 
passing  under  them,  the  second  endless  sheet  B  being  closer  to  the  silk 
than  the  first  sheet  A,  and  the  third  C  closer  than  the  second,  and  so  on. 

The  silk  from  the  filling  engine  is  placed  in  small  boxes  H,  which 
are  fitted  up  with  sliders  and  boards  K  like  the  inframes  of  the  flat 
dressing  frame — in  short,  the  box  is  a  small  inframe.  Underneath 
the  box  is  fixed  a  rack  which  gears  into  the  worms  L  on  the  shaft  M. 
At  each  end  of  the  frame  is  a  turn-table  N",  and  between  each  frame  a 
similar  turn-table. 

Opposite  the  turn-tables  and  between  the  frames  is  an  automatic 
screwiug-up  machine  to  enable  the  attendant  to  screw  up  the  boards 
of  filled  silk  in  the  boxes.  It  requires  six  or  seven  boxes  to  fill  the 
dressing  frame  (as  shown  by  dotted  lines).  The  action  of  the  machine 
is  as  follows  :  The  boards  of  silk  are  inserted  between  the  sliders  in 
the  ordinary  way  whilst  the  box  is  on  the  turn-table  between  the 
frames.  The  sliders  and  boards  are  nipped  tightly  together  by  the 
screwing-up  motions,  and  then  the  box  is  moved  on  to  the  turn-table 
N  (at  the  left),  whence  it  is  moved  forwards  so  that  the  toothed  rack 
comes  in  contact  with  the  worm  L.  The  revolution  of  the  worm 
draws  the  box  forward,  so  that  it  passes  slowly  underneath  the  combs 
and  cards  on  the  endless  sheet,  and  the  series  of  worms  propel  the 
box  forward  from  end  to  end  of  the  frame.  A  second  box  is  placed 
close  behind  the  first,  and  a  third  behind  the  second,  and  so  on  until 
the  frame  is  full. 

As  the  silk  fibres  come  in  contact  with  the  combs  at  the  point  V 
they  are  laid  hold  of  by  the  combs  and  drawn  through  them,  thereby 
combing  the  fibres  thoroughly  in  travelling  the  length  of  the  endless 
belt.  As  the  combs  are  farther  away  from  the  silk  at  point  V  than 
at  point  U,  the  silk  is  very  gradually  and  gently  combed  and  dressed. 
Each  projecting  tuft  of  silk,  in  passing  clear  of  combs  at  U,  is  naturally 
drawn  over  by  such  combs  as  they  travel  around  the  bend  of  the  roller 
W,  and  therefore,  when  the  tufts  reach  the  endless  sheet  B — which  is 
travelling  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  sheet  A— the  combs  on  the 
sheet  B  lay  hold  of  the  opposite  sides  of  the  tufts,  which  are  thus 
combed  and  dressed  a  second  time,  but  on  the  reverse  side.  After 
passing  under  the  second  sheet  B  the  tufts  are  turned  over  by  the 
wiper  brush  T,  and  then  the  cards  and  combs  on  the  third  sheet  C 
operate  on  the  silk  to  remove  the  nibs  and  noils.  The  roller  Y 
operates  in  the  same  manner  as  the  roller  W,  so  that  the  reverse  side 
of  the  silk  is  carded  and  combed  in  section  D. 


THE   OPENING  AND   DRESSING   OF   WASTES      99 

By  thus  travelling  the  silk  horizontally  under  and  in  contact  with 
the  combs  and  cards  a  complete  dressing  is  given  to  the  fibres  in 
passing  once  through  the  machine.  The  boards  of  silk  are  turned  in 
the  usual  way  on  the  turn-table  between  the  frames  at  the  right-hand 
end,  and  the  box  is  then  pushed  into  the  frame  alongside  the  first 
frame,  which  repeats  the  process  as  described,  so  that  when  the  box 
reaches  the  turn-table  at  the  end  of  the  second  frame,  both  ends  of  the 
tufts  of  silk  are  dressed.  The  dressed  silk  is  removed  by  the  attend- 
ant, the  box  is  refilled  with  undressed  silk,  and  is  then  sent  forward 


123 


fcsl 


fcsi 


FIG.  65. — Continuous  dressing  frame  (plan  of  set  of  frames). 

to  complete  another  circuit  of  the  machines.  Whilst  the  first  box 
has  been  travelling,  fourteen  or  fifteen  other  boxes  have  been  filled 
and  propelled  forward  one  behind  the  other,  so  that  there  is  always  a 
constant  supply  of  dressed  silk  being  delivered  by  the  frames.  The 
fibre  removed  by  the  working  combs  is  pressed  down  to  the  roots  by 
brushes  and  stripped  in  the  usual  way,  making  first  to  seventh  drafts  in 
the  mode  of  the  fiat  dressing  frame. 

The  most  economical  method  of  working  continuous  frames  is 
shown  in  Fig.  65.     This  gives  the  plan  of  six  machines  arranged  in 


IOO 


SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 


pairs  A,  B,  C.  At  each  end  of  each  frame  is  a  turn-table  T,  and 
between  each  pair  at  each  end  another  turn-table  S.  Opposite  each 
of  the  latter  turn-tables  is  fixed  the  automatic  screwing-up  machine  D 
(shown  also  in  Figs.  66  and  67).  At  the  end  of  each  frame  or  row  of 
frames,  and  between  each  pair,  is  fixed  the  tabling  E,  which  forms  a 
place  for  the  storage  of  dressing  boards,  empty  and  full,  and  for 
"  turning  "  the  silk.  The  pair  of  frames  A  receive  the  strips  from  the 
filling,  and  dress  first  drafts.  The  strips  from  frames  A  are  filled 


FIG.  66. — Screwing-up  machine. 

into  the  boxes  of  the  frames  B,  which  dress  out  second  and  third 
drafts.  The  strip  from  the  third  draft  is  delivered  to  the  frames  C, 
which  dress  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  drafts. 

Each  pair  requires  two  attendants  to  strip  the  combs  and  one 
attendant  at  each  end.  One,  called  the  putter-in,  is  stationed  at  F, 
and  places  the  boards  of  silk  into  the  box  or  inframe,  which  he  then 
puts  in  contact  with  the  worm,  which  carries  it  forward  under  the 
combs.  He  then  transfers  his  attention  to  the  delivering  end  G  of 
the  opposite  frame,  which  delivers  a  box  full  of  completely  dressed 
silk.  This  he  empties  out  and  refills  with  silk  for  dressing.  The 
other  attendant  at  H  receives  the  dressed  silk  from  the  finishing  end 


THE   OPENING  AND   DRESSING  OF   WASTES      101 


I,  turns  the  silk  in  the  board,  and  pushes  the  box  under  the  frame  at 
K,  whence  it  travels  again  to  the  putter-in.  The  time  occupied  by  a 
box  in  travelling  the  circuit  of  the  pair  of  frames  is  about  one  hour  and 
ten  minutes,  so  that  the  action  of  the  combs  on  the  silk  is  very  gentle. 
A  box  of  dressed  silk  is  delivered  at  the  finishing  end  of  each 
pair  every  four  or  five  minutes,  and  therefore  the  production  of  the 
machines  is  very  great.  The  quality  mentioned  previously  in  flat 
dressing  would  yield  about  800  Ib.  of  dressed  silk  from  the  three 
pairs  of  frames  per  week  of  fifty  working  hours.  With  a  good  quality 
of  gum  silk  the  production  of  finished  silk  would  be  900  Ib.  per  fifty 
hours.  Tussah  silk  can  be  worked  to  show  a  production  of  1200  Ib. 
per  fifty  hours.  Schappe  silk  of  fair  quality  will  yield  the  last-named 
weight,  and  the  quality  of  dressing — both  in  length  of  staple  and 
yield  of  drafts  from  the  weight  filled  to  the  machine — is  better  than 
that  produced  by  either  the  circular  or  the  flat  frame.  Foreign  rate 


FIG.  67. — Screwing-up  machine. 

of  wages  and  hours  of  work  make  the  continuous-frame  system  the 
cheapest  method  of  dressing  yet  known. 

Other  systems  of  continuous  frames  have  been  attempted,  but  the 
one  described  is  the  only  one  which  gives  a  better  yield  of  drafts 
than  flat-frame  dressing.  The  "faller"  principle  of  propelling  the 
silk  under  combs  and  cards  is  not  good,  for  two  main  reasons  :  First, 
the  automatic  locking  arrangements  fail  to  hold  the  silk  tight  in  the 
boards ;  and,  second,  the  difference  in  the  wear  and  tear  of  each 
respective  faller  or  bookboard  causes  them  to  be  unequal  in  height, 
and  therefore  the  working  combs  and  cards  dress  the  silk  unequally. 
Some  is  left  nibby  and  noily,  and  some  is  cut  short,  the  latter  because 
the  board  of  silk  is  too  high,  and  the  former  because  it  is  too  low,  in 
relation  to  the  working  combs  and  cards.  An  absolute  essential  for 
a  successful  dressing  frame  is  tight  hold  of  the  silk  in  the  boards ; 
and  a  more  important  one  still  is  extreme  levelness  of  the  series  of 


IO2 


SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 


boards,  for  each  board  must  be  kept  level  with  the  sliders.  In  flat- 
frame  dressing  the  inframe  is  planed  and  levelled  from  end  to  end, 
and  as  each  inframe  works  under  its  own  combs,  the  keeping  of  the 
boards  right  is  not  a  very  difficult  matter.  For  a  continuous  frame, 
the  boards  in  each  box  must  be  level,  and  every  box  must  be  exactly 


FIG.  68. — Planing  machine  for  bookboards 

the  same  height,  so  that  each  box  gets  exactly  the  same  combing  and 
carding. 

Planing. — This  is  attained  by  use  of  the  planing  machine  shown 
in  Figs.  68  and  69.  The  boxes  are  fastened  down  on  the  frame  A 
(shown  by  dotted  lines),  which  frame,  by  means  of  the  worms  ^Wr'on 


FIG.  69. — Planing  machine  for  bookboards. 

the  shaft  S,  is  propelled  to  the  rear  end  of  the  machine  and  passes 
under  the  disc  D.  This  disc  revolves  at  a  great  speed,  and  with  its 
cutters  planes  the  woodwork  in  the  boxes  absolutely  level.  The  disc 
can  be  raised  or  lowered  to  accommodate  any  depth  of  frame,  but, 
when  once  "  set,"  all  the  fourteen  boxes  to  fill  a  dressing  frame  are 


,; 

THE   OPENING  AND   DRESSING   OF   WASTES      103 

run  through ;  thus  each  box  is  level  one  with  the  other,  and  perfectly 
dressed  silk  can  be  obtained  in  each  box. 

SCREWING-UP  MACHINE. — The  working  of  the  automatic  sere  wing- 
up  machine  is  as  follows :  Fig.  66  is  the  plan,  and  Fig.  67  the  side 
elevation.  A  is  the  frame-work  of  the  machine,  while  B  are  spindle 
shafts  corresponding  in  number  and  distance  apart  to  the  compressing 
screws  S  in  the  inframes  C  (the  inframe  is  shown  in  part).  Keyed 
on  the  spindle  shaft  is  a  toothed  wheel  D  engaging  with  the  worms 
E  secured  on  the  main  driving  shaft  F.  Each  spindle  B  is  provided 
with  a  clutch  G,  kept  in  gear  by  springs  H,  the  pressure  of  which  can 
be  regulated  by  the  nuts  Q,  so  that  when  the  pressure  reaches  a 
desired  maximum  the  clutch  G  will  disengage  itself  or  slip. 

The  main  driving  shaft  F  is  driven  in  either  direction  by  driving 
pulleys  U  and  V,  which  are  controlled  by  the  reversing  clutch  J, 
which  is  worked  by  the  lever  K  from  the  foot  lever  L. 

The  inframe  is  placed  on  the  turn-table  T,  which  is  mounted  on 
runners  M  to  enable  the  compressing  screws  S  to  effect  an  engagement 
with  the  pins  N  on  the  part  of  the  clutch  W.  When  in  position  the 
attendant  presses  one  foot  on  the  lever  L  at  the  point  O,  which  causes 
the  clutch  J  to  engage  with  the  pulley  V  which  traverses  the  shaft  S, 
thus  rotating  the  clutch  G  and  screws  S,  and  compressing  the  book- 
boards  P.  When  the  pressure  is  sufficiently  great  to  overpower  the 
spring  H,  the  clutch  G  will  slip,  and  the  free  part  X  of  the  clutch  G 
will  cease  to  rotate.  Depression  on  the  side  R  of  the  foot  lever 
operates  the  pulley  U,  which  turns  the  clutches  and  screws  the 
opposite  way,  thus  releasing  the  bookboards  from  the  pressure,  to 
enable  the  attendant  to  take  them  out  to  remove  or  turn  the  silk. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  production  of  all  kinds  of  dressing 
frames  depends  upon  the  number  of  boards  which  can  be  put  through 
them,  and  as  silk  in  the  commoner  qualities  is  always  inclined  to 
work  thick  and  fluffy  in  the  short  drafts,  the  number  of  boards  of 
silk  has  to  be  greater  in  the  "short  frame"  than  the  "long  frame," 
consequently  the  production  of  the  "short  frame"  really  rules  the 
production  of  the  set  of  frames.  This  is  well  illustrated  by  the 
following  figures. 

In  flat-frame  dressing,  3  oz.  of  filled  silk  being  placed  in  each 
board  of  the  first  frame,  a  first  frame  attendant  will  handle  2376 
boards  per  fifty  hours,  a  second  frame  attendant  about  4300  boards 
per  fifty  hours,  and  a  third  frame  attendant  4600  boards  per  fifty 
hours,  the  latter  equalling  about  92  boards  per  hour. 

The  continental  circular  frame  user,  however,  only  fills  about  1  oz. 
per  board,  and  therefore  to  obtain  a  large  production  of  dressed  silk 
a  larger  number  of  boards  or  sticks  of  silk  must  be  turned  per  hour. 
For  a  first  frame  the  number  would  be  125  per  hour,  a  second  frame 
150  per  hour,  whilst  a  shorter  draft  frame  would  need  from  200  to 
250  turning  per  hour. 


104  SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 

The  continuous  flat  frame,  working  the  same  silk  as  the  flat 
dressing  frame,  gives  at  least  the  same  number  of  boards  per  hour  as 
the  circular  dresser,  and  it  can  be  easily  proved  that  the  saving  to  an 
English  silk  spinner  using  the  continuous  machine  is  50  per  cent,  in 
cost  per  pound  of  dressed  silk.  The  continental  dresser  cannot  fill  a 
large  weight  per  board  or  stick  to  his  machine,  because  the  severe 
action  of  the  combs  on  a  thick  film  of  silk  would  damage  the  fibre, 
cutting  it  short  and  spoiling  the  yield.  A  great  compensation  for 
the  thin  filling — 1  oz.  per  board — comes  by  reason  of  the  large  per- 
centage of  first  drafts  which  this  thin  filling  gives.  In  all  dressing, 
a  thin  film  will  yield  better  and  dress  easier  than  a  thick  one,  and  a 
schappe  silk  will  dress  better  thin  than  a  fully  discharged  silk, 
because  the  latter  has  to  be  run  hard  into  the  combs  to  clear  the  nibs 
off  the  fibre.  A  discharged  silk,  therefore,  needs  a  certain  amount  of 
"  body "  to  cause  it  to  spring  to  the  combs  and  cards,  which  are 


FIG.  70. — Diagram  of  dressing  frames  action. 

always  pressing  down  the  silk  on  to  the  sliders.  If  the  silk  lies  too 
flat  it  will  not  clear  unless  the  combs  are  run  through  the  silk  and 
into  the  wood  beneath,  which  of  course  damages  the  points  of  the 
combs  and  cards,  rendering  them  useless,  and  also  spoiling  the  wood- 
work— sliders  and  bookboards — of  the  frame. 

The  diagrams  in  Fig.  70  show  the  principles  of  dressing  in  each 
class  of  frame. 

In  flat-frame  dressing,  as  shown  at  A,  the  films  of  silk  are  raised 
up  (see  arrow)  into  contact  with  the  combs,  which  therefore  comb 
through  the  silk,  beginning  at  the  point  of  the  fibre  and  dressing 
half-way  through  the  film,  after  which  the  frame  must  be  let  down, 
turned  half  round,  and  the  under  side  of  the  silk  film  turned  .upwards 
for  combing.  The  same  operations  must  be  repeated  for  carding  out 
the  nibs.  During  the  raising  up  and  down  and  turning  and  filling  of 
the  boards  of  silk,  the  combs  and  cards  are  not  working,  and  during 
that  period  the  machine  may  be  classed  as  a  non-producer. 


THE   OPENING  AND   DRESSING  OF   WASTES      105 

In  the  continuous  flat- frame  dressing,  shown  at  B,  the  films  of 
silk  travel  forward  into  closer  contact  with  the  combs,  and  under 
each  section  the  silk  is  reversed  automatically,  every  operation  of  the 
flat  frame  being  repeated ;  but  the  continuous  frame  is  always  deliver- 
ing dressed  silk. 

In  the  circular  frame,  of  which  the  working  portion  is  shown  in  part 
sectionally  at  C,  the  tufts  of  silk  pass  the  comb  very  quickly,  the  points 
of  contact  varying  with  the  length  of  fibre, 'as  shown  at  E  and  F,  and 
all  the  combing  is  done  between  points  of  contact  and  the  nip  H  of 
the  large  drum  and  comb  drum.  As  there  are  only  two  working 
combs,  each  working  in  opposite  directions,  the  film  of  silk  is  only 
combed  on  each  side  once  instead  of  twice  by  the  other  methods  of 
dressing,  and  therefore  the  circular  frame  has  to  be  more  severe  in 
its  action  on  the  silk  fibre  than  in  flat  dressing,  to  ensure  the  silk 
being  properly  dressed.  The  circular  frame  is  also  always  delivering 
dressed  silk. 

Combing  machines  on  the  Heilmann  and  Noble  principles  have 
often  been  tried  for  silk  dressing,  but  they  are  useless  for  long-fibred 
silk.  They  have  no  mechanism  giving  sufficient  grip  of  the  end  of 
silk  not  being  combed  to  enable  the  portion  projecting  for  combing 
to  withstand  the  severe  dragging  action  of  a  worker  comb. 

The  dresser  keeps  each  draft  separate,  packing  them  usually  in 
tins  preparatory  to  the  next  operation.  The  first  four  drafts  are  the 
most  in  quantity,  and  also  the  most  valuable,  these  being  used  by  the 
"long  spinner."  The  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  drafts  are  called  shorts, 
and  are  used  by  the  "short  spinner."  The  noils  are  either  combed 
in  order  to  obtain  another  length  of  silk  out  of  them,  or  they  are 
worked  into  yarn  on  the  same  system  as  wool.  If  combed,  the 
resulting  sliver  from  the  noils  is  used  in  short  spinning,  and  the  noil 
itself — called  exhaust  noil — is  also  put  through  the  woollen  spinning 
system.  After  the  drafts  leave  the  dresser  they  must  be  examined  to 
see  if  they  are  properly  dressed,  and  also  to  remove  any  threads  of 
cotton,  hard-twisted  ends  of  silk,  pieces  of  hemp,  and  other  deleterious 
matters  not  removed  by  the  picking  process  previously  described. 


CHAPTEK  VIII 

SILK  WASTE  DRAWING  OR  PREPARING  MACHINERY 

LONG  SPINNING. — The  largest  percentage  of  weight  of  dressed  silk  being 
in  the  first  four  drafts,  "  long  spinning  "  is  the  most  important  branch 
of  the  spun  silk  industry.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  fact  that  it 
deals  with  the  longest  fibres  produced  from  silk  waste,  and  also  in 
contradistinction  to  "short  spinning."  Originally  all  silk  waste  was 
short  spun — i.e.  combed  or  dressed  in  the  gum  state — the  drafts  being 
then  taken  to  a  cutting  machine  (built  like  a  hay  chopper)  and  cut 
with  knives  into  lengths  of  1  to  2  in.,  thus  making  the  fibres  an  equal 
length  as  far  as  possible.  The  material  was  then  boiled  and  afterwards 
beaten,  scutched,  carded,  drawn,  spun,  etc.,  in  the  same  manner  as 
cotton.  The  cutting  of  the  fibres  and  the  action  of  the  cards  spoilt  the 
lustre  of  the  silk,  and  in  process  of  time  spinners  found  that  the  most 
efficient  mode  of  dealing  with  the  fibre  and  enhancing  its  value,  by 
reason  of  its  increased  lustre  and  strength,  was  to  boil  the  silk  before 
dressing,  and  put  the  resulting  long  drafts  through  spreading  and  gill- 
drawing  machinery  very  similar  to  a  worsted  plant.  Like  all  new 
systems,  it  took  time  to  become  general,  and  meanwhile  the  old  style 
became  known  as  short  spinning — really  "cut-silk  spinning" — and 
the  new  as  "  long  spinning."  Nowadays  the  cutting  of  silk  is  almost 
done  away  with,  and  most  spinners,  having  only  the  long  spun 
machinery,  sell  their  shorts — i.e.  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  drafts — 
which  are  bought  by  the  few  remaining  short  spinners,  and  scutched, 
carded,  drawn,  and  spun  as  described  later. 

The  lengths  of  fibres  in  the  various  drafts  vary  very  much.  For 
instance,  a  first  draft  of  good  gum  waste  like  China  will  have  fibres 
from  2  J  to  7  or  8  in.  in  length,  whilst  the  seventh  draft  would  show 
fibres  1  to  3  or  4  in.  long. 

What  may  be  called  a  common  quality  (say  steam  waste)  will 
show  fibres  as  follows : — 

First  drafts  from  2    to  6  in. 
Second      ,,          2     ,,  4  ,, 
Third         „          H  „  4  „ 
Fourth       ,,          14  ,,  3  ,, 
Shorts  from  ^  ,,3  ,, 

103 


LONG  SPINNING  PREPARING   MACHINERY      107 

These  different  lengths  of  fibre  cause  much  trouble  in  the  drawing 
departments  of  a  silk  mill,  and  until  recent  years  each  draft  was  spun 
into  a  separate  yarn.  Thus  one  quality  of  waste  was  spun  into  what 
were  known  as  first-draft  yarns,  second-draft  yarns,  third-draft  yarns, 
and  so  on,  the  longest  draft  being  sold  for  the  most  money,  on  account 
of  its  superior  strength  and  lustre.  As  competition  increased,  spinners 
found  they  could  draw  first  and  second  draft  yarns  together  for  many 
purposes  without  materially  damaging  either  strength  or  lustre,  and 
from  that  they  progressed  until  nearly  every  spinner  makes  a  yarn  for 
some  purpose  or  other  which  contains  all  four  drafts  drawn  together. 
They  can  be  made  into  a  good  strong  level  yarn,  quite  good  enough  for 
any  ordinary  weaving  purpose,  so  long  as  care  is  taken  in  the  drawing 
not  to  allow  the  shortest  fibres  to  run  through  in  lumps.  As  strength 
is  needed,  care  must  be  exercised  not  to  break  too  much  the  long 
fibres.  Now,  as  even  first  drafts  contain  such  great  differences  in 
length  of  fibre,  it  can  easily  be  understood  that  machines  which  will 
satisfactorily  cope  with  first  drafts  can  only  be  wrong  in  some  minor 
details  for  all  four  drafts,  and  these  details  are  chiefly  in  diameters  of 
rollers  and  length  of  "reach" — that  is,  distance  between  back  and 
front  rollers.  The  principle  of  drawing  is  to  reduce  a  thick  portion  of 
silk  down  to  an  end  so  small  that  it  can  be  spun  into  a  thread  without 
an  excessive  draft,  and  at  the  same  time  to  level  it  so  that  the  thread 
is  all  one  thickness.  This  is  done  by  a  pair  of  rollers  revolving 
slowly,  taking  the  silk  in,  and  feeding  a  pair  of  front  rollers  revolving 
quickly,  thus  drawing  the  silk  out.  To  put  it  another  way :  If  200 
fibres  are  lying  side  by  side,  each  6  in.  long,  drawing  makes  the 
fibres  into  a  thread,  say  60  in.  long,  with  20  fibres  deep.  This 
operation  is  repeated  a  sufficient  number  of  times  with  a  number  of 
ends  behind  the  back  rollers  to  make  a  sufficient  number  of  doublings, 
until  the  silk  is  brought  down  in  thickness  to  a  thread  or  roving 
sufficiently  fine  to  be  spun,  and  at  the  same  time  so  level  that  it  is  as 
near  as  possible  all  one  thickness  from  end  to  end.  As  there  are 
many  different  kinds  of  drawing  frames,  we  shall  describe  only  those 
which  have  been  found  most  suitable  for  a  general  trade,  taking  long 
spinning  drawing  machinery  first,  and  then  short  spinning  drawing 
machinery,  each  up  to  the  point  of  spinning,  whence  all  kinds  of  yarns 
undergo  much  the  same  treatment. 

Picking  drafts. — If  the  silk  to  be  spun  is  free  from  extraneous 
matters,  such  as  small  portions  of  cotton,  China  grass,  straw,  and 
hairs,  it  would  be  passed  to  the  "weigher";  but  many  silks  are 
not  free,  and  therefore  the  first  process  is  really  "  picking "  or 
examining  the  silk  for  bad  dressing  and  foreign  fibres.  For  this 
purpose,  in  a  dark  room  is  erected  a  picking  stand  round  which  eight 
persons  can  sit.  Fig.  71  shows  a  plan  of  this  stand,  and  Fig.  72  a 
sectional  elevation.  The  arrangement  is  as  follows  :  A  is  the  frame- 
work of  the  stand ;  B  glass  squares  let  into  the  framework,  the  top  of 


io8 


SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 


the  frame  and  glass  being  exactly  level  and  smooth ;  C  (shown  only  in 
Fig.  73)  are  rods  of  smooth  hard  wood  hinged  at  one  end  D,  and  held 
down  at  the  other  end  by  the  spring  catch  E.  Under  the  frame  is 
either  a  gas  light  or  an  electric  light  F  surrounded  by  reflectors  to 
throw  up  a  strong  light  through  the  glass  squares.  Opposite  each 


FIG.  71.— Silk  picking  table. 


FIG.  72.— Silk  picking 
table  (side  section). 


square  is  seated  a  girl  having  a  tin  of  dressed  silk  by  her  side,  who 
places  a  portion  of  it  under  the  wood  rod  shown  in  position  in  Fig.  73, 
which  illustrates  also  the  square  of  glass  B.  Any  pieces  of  straw, 
cotton,  hair,  or  other  coarse  thick  fibres  show  dark  (like  the  dark  lines 
in  the  illustration)  against  the  light,  and  are  easily  seen  by  the  girl 


FIG.  73.— Drafts. 

picker  and  taken  from  the  silk.  Any  portion  of  very  short  silk  is 
shown  up  also,  and  is  taken  out,  as  are  nibs  and  badly  dressed  silk. 
After  picking,  the  silk  is  replaced  in  a  tin  and  conveyed  to  the 
"weigher." 

Weiyhiny. — This  is  usually  done  by  girls,  who  sit  at  a  table  on 
which  are  placed,  at  regular  intervals,  small  beam  scales.    They  weigh 


LONG   SPINNING  PREPARING   MACHINERY      109 

the  dressed  silk  (keeping  each  draft  separate)  into  3  oz.  parcels, 
each  3  oz.  being  most  carefully  weighed  and  wrapped  in  soft  paper, 
tied  up  with  string  or  fastened  with  an  indiarubber  band,  and  thence 
handed,  a  certain  number  at  a  time,  to  the  silk  spreader. 

Long  spinning  drawing  machinery. — Silk  spreading  is  the  first  of 
a  series  of  silk  "gill  or  faller"  drawing  machines.  A  gill  drawing 
machine  consists  usually  of  a  pair  of  back  rollers  revolving  slowly, 
and  a  pair  of  front  rollers  revolving  quickly,  while  between  is  a  set  of 
gills  or  fallers  carrying  the  silk  from  the  back  rollers  to  the  front. 
The  principle  of  all  the  machines  is  the  same.  The  back  rollers 
receive  the  silk,  deliver  it  to  the  fallers,  which  rise  one  by  one,  pierce 
the  silk,  and  travel  forward  to  the  front  roller.  The  fallers  then  drop, 
and  are  carried  back  to  the  rising  end,  and  again  raised  into  the  silk. 

The  fallers  are  bars  of  steel,  Fig.  74,  into  which  are  fixed  fine  steel 
pins.  They  are  travelled  forwards  by  means  of  two  screws,  between 
the  threads  of  which  they  are  run.  When  the  fallers  come  to  the  end 
of  the  screws  they  drop  down  (being  helped  in  their  drop  by  cams  at 
the  end  of  each  screw)  into  the  thread  of  another  pair  of  screws 
revolving  the  reverse  way,  and  so  carrying  the  fallers  back  underneath 
their  previous  traverse.  When  arrived  at  the  end  they  are  lifted  up 
by  means  of  cams  into  the  top  pair  of  screws,  and  so  recommence  their 
journey.  The  front  rollers  draw  the  silk  quickly  through  the  fallers, 
thus  making  it  into  a  much  thinner  ribbon  or  film  of  silk  than  when 
it  was  delivered  by  the  back  rollers  to  the  fallers.  This  drawing 
through  the  pins  lustres  the  silk  and  straightens  or  lays  the  fibres 
parallel  to  each  other.  If  the  fallers  travel  more  slowly  than  the 
circumference  of  the  bottom  back  roller  revolves,  the  silk  will  lie  on 
the  top  of  the  pins,  and  thus  will  not  be  drawn  through  them  when 
they  reach  the  front  roller.  If  the  fallers  travel  faster  than  the  back 
roller,  they  have  a  tendency  to  drag  the  silk  and  break  it.  Therefore 
a  choice  must  be  made  of  two  evils,  and  practice  has  shown  that  the 
latter  method  is  the  best.  The  back  rollers  are  movable  so  as  to 
allow  them  to  be  drawn  away  from  the  fallers  for  long-fibred  silk,  or 
set  closer  for  short-fibred  silk.  The  pins  of  the  fallers  are  coarsely  set 
in  the  first  machine,  and  the  difference  of  speed  between  back  roller 
and  faller  must  only  be  very  slight.  Long  silk  needs  freedom  between 
roller  and  faller  to  ensure  as  little  breakage  as  possible.  Short  silk 
offers  no  resistance  to  the  pins  as  they  rise,  and  therefore  the  fibres  lie 
on  the  point  of  the  pin.  Satisfactory  results  can  only  be  attained  by 
the  pins  piercing  through  the  silk.  The  easiest  test  is  to  feel  at  the 
silk  between  the  back  roller  and  the  fallers,  and  if  it  is  stretched  very 
tight  to  put  back  the  rollers ;  if  it  is  slack  and  riding  on  the  fallers,  the 
rollers  should  be  brought  forward.  Those  in  charge  should  never  be 
satisfied  until  the  silk  is  well  in  the  pins,  and  they  should  in  no  case 
resort  to  artificial  means  of  forcing  the  silk  down.  Some  drawing 
overlookers  fix  a  brush  over  the  back  portion  of  the  drawing  box,  thus 


no 


SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 


forcing  the  silk  into  the  pins,  but  at  the  same  time  breaking  the 
fibres. 

Fig.  75  shows  side  elevation  of  the  gill  spreader.  A  is  a  travelling 
leather  endless  belt,  on  which  the  draft  of  silk  is  spread  in  the  manner 
shown  in  Fig.  76.  The  silk  is  travelled  into  touch  with  the  porcupine 
roller  B,  and  held  firmly  down  on  the  teeth  of  this  roller  by  the  small 
rollers  X,  Y,  Z.  It  is  conducted  from  the  porcupine  into  the  fallers  F, 


FIG.  74.— Faller. 


FIG.  75.— Gill  spreader. 


which,  rising  from  D,  strike  into  the  silk,  and  carry  it  forward  to  the 
receiving  and  drafting  rollers  M,  N.  As  these  travel  eight  or  ten  or 
more  times  faster  than  the  fallers,  they  draft  or  draw  the  silk  through 
the  pins,  thus  making  the  silk  into  a  film  eight  or  ten  or  more  times 
thinner  than  when  it  entered.  The  endless  leather  sheet  H  conveys 
the  silk  to  the  large  wooden  drum  J,  which  carries  it  round  on  its  face 
until  the  3  oz.  parcel  has  all  been  spread  on  the  sheet  A,  travelled 


,  FIG.  76.— Silk  spreading. 

through  the  fallers  on  to  the  drum,  and  so  made  a  thin  film  of  silk 
about  8  or  10  in.  broad  and  the  length  of  the  circumference  of  the 
drum.  When  complete,  the  silk,  now  called  a  "lap,"  is  cut  across  the 
drum  in  the  direction  of  the  axle,  and  wound  up  as  it  leaves  into  a 
small  ball  in  readiness  for  next  operation.  A  good  spreader  will 
spread  the  silk  thinly  and  evenly  on  the  sheet  A,  the  fibres  lying 
straight  and  overlapping  as  shown  in  plan  by  the  dark  lines  in 


ft 

LONG  SPINNING   PREPARING   MACHINERY      in 

Fig.  76.  If  she  is  allowed  to  put  the  fibres  sideways,  they  enter  the 
pins  of  the  falters  in  that  way,  and  when  that  portion  of  the  silk 
reaches  the  drawing  rollers  M,  N,  they  either  pull  the  fibres  over  the 
tops  of  the  pins  or  break  them  asunder.  If  the  former  happens,  the 
lap  contains  a  lump  of  thick  silk  which  needs  more  drawing  in  the 
following  drawing  machinery,  which  most  probably  never  gets 
thoroughly  drawn,  and  thus  makes  a  foul  yarn.  If  the  fibre  is 
broken,  then  short  sjlk  is  being  formed,  which  weakens  the  thread  and 
deadens  the  lustre  of  the  yarn.  A  careless  spreading  machine 


FIG.  77. — Gill  spreader. 


attendant  can  easily  spoil  the  work  of  the  dressing  frames  and  render 
it  impossible  to  make  a  level  and  perfect  thread. 

Re-lapping. — For  the  purpose  of  still  further  straightening  the 
fibres  of  silk,  the  lap  is  often  put  through  the  spreader,  thus  re- 
spreading  or  re-lapping  it ;  but  this  process  is  only  really  necessary 
for  the  shorter  drafts.  Fig.  77  is  a  photograph  of  this  spreading 
frame. 

Sett  frame. — The  silk,  after  going  once  or  twice  through  the 
spreader,  is  next  made  into  a  sliver  by  being  passed  through  the  sett 
frame,  which  consists  of  a  feeding  endless  leather  belt,  back  rollers, 
and  falters  similar  to  those  previously  described ;  and  front  drawing 
rollers,  which  deliver  the  silk  into  a  pair  of  pressing  rollers,  from 


112 


SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 


which  it  emerges  in  the  form  of  a  ribbon  or  sliver,  and  drops  into  a 
long  can  placed  beneath  the  delivery  rollers.  Fig.  78  is  a  photograph 
of  the  sett  frame.  Very  often  these  machines  are  fitted  with  a  bell 
or  stop  motion  to  warn  the  attendant  when  a  predetermined  number 
of  yards  has  been  delivered  into  the  can,  and  if  the  weighing  and 
spreading  have  been  properly  performed  the  respective  lengths  should 


r 


FIG.  78.— Sett  frame. 

be  nearly  the  same  weight.  Sometimes  the  sett  frame  is  fixed  on  the 
same  gantry  as  the  drawing  heads,  as  shown  by  Fig.  79,  which  shows 
the  back  of  the  sett  frame  and  the -back  of  the  first  head  of  drawing. 

Drawing  frames. — These  are  for  the  purpose  of  levelling  the 
slivers,  and  are  similar  in  construction  to  the  sett  frame  except  for 
the  difference  in  feed,  the  one  being  made  to  receive  the  thick  lap, 


j    • 

LONG  SPINNING  PREPARING   MACHINERY     113 

and  the  other  to  receive  slivers  varying  in  number  from  6  to  20,  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  doublings  the  silk  requires  to  make  it  level. 
Usually  four  drawing  heads  are  employed,  called  respectively  first 
head,  second  head,  third  head,  and  finisher.  An  average  number  of 
cans  of  sliver  from  the  sett' frame  to  the  first  head  of  drawing  will  be 
10  or  12,  and  these  being  put  up  behind  the  first  drawing  box,  are 
drawn  out  into  one  thin  sliver,  which  is  about  the  same  weight  per 
yard  as  the  one  from  the  sett  frame ;  but  it  is  well  to  keep  rather  on 
the  light  side.  Thus,  if  12  ends  are  up,  the  draft  of  the  box  would 
be  about  14,  so  that  every  foot  of  sliver  at  the  back  is  drawn  to  about 


FIG.  79. — Drawing  heads. 

14  feet  at  the  front,  and  the  sliver  at  the  front  is  practically  one- 
fourteenth  the  thickness  of  the  combined  slivers  behind.  From  the 
front  of  the  first  box  12  cans  are  taken  and  put  up  behind  the  second 
head  of  drawing,  the  same  number  from  the  second  to  the  third,  again 
from  the  third  to  the  fourth,  or  finisher  box.  The  doublings  of  the 
ends  or  slivers  which  the  silk  has  obtained  in  these  four  heads  are 
then — 

1st  head,  2nd  head,  3rd  head,  4th  head  _  OA  70^  . 

Ends  ~~12 x 12      x      12      x^W~ 

and  these,  with  the  straightening  in  the  spreading,  re- lapping,  and 
sett  frame,  combine  to  make  a  level  sliver  at  the  finisher  head  of 

8 


SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 


drawing.  If  the  work  has  been  well  done,  the  fibres  of  silk  will  be 
parallel,  and  the  sliver  will  show  no  lumps  or  thick  places  in  any 
portion  of  its  length,  so  the  weight  per  yard  of  its  length  will  be 
accurate. 

In  all  drawing  machinery,  care  must  be  taken  to  especially  watch 
the  following  points :  The  distance  of  the  back  rollers  from  the 
fallers  should  be  carefully  regulated  in  accordance  with  the  average 
lengths  of  fibre,  every  box  requiring  separate  setting.  The  saddles — 
or  bars  of  iron  on  which  the  fallers  travel  to  and  fro — need  keeping 
level  and  a  proper  length.  If  too  short,  the  fallers  are  apt  to  lock 
and  get  either  strained  or  broken.  They  should  be  case-hardened  to 
prevent  wear.  The  conductors  which  are  at  the  end  of  the  saddles 
are  pressed  against  the  ends  by  springs.  As  the  fallers  rise  into  and 
drop  out  of  the  silk,  they  press  the  conductors  away  from  the  saddles, 
and  thus  glide  smoothly  up  and  down  between  the  saddle  end  and 


© 


E 

n 


(J   O 


tttittttitttt 
Mil 


FIG.  80. — Section  of  drawing  head. 

the  conductor ;  and  therefore  the  care  of  the  overlooker  is  necessary 
to  see  that  the  conductors  are  tight  enough  to  keep  the  fallers  firm, 
but  not  too  tight  to  make  them  difficult  to  move  up  and  down.  The 
fallers  should  always  be  kept  in  good  repair.  It  is  astonishing  how 
quickly  pins  get  split,  broken,  and  bent.  Unless  replaced  by  new 
ones,  the  silk  is  apt  to  ride  on  the  top  of  the  points,  and  not  be  drawn 
through  the  pins ;  or  if  the  pin  is  rough  when  the  front  roller  tries  to 
draw  the  fibre  through,  the  roughness  holds  the  silk  and  breaks  it, 
making  short  silk. 

The  production  of  a  set  of  drawing  frames  varies  very  much — say, 
from  150  to  300  Ib.  per  week.  Some  spinners  prefer  to  work  with  a 
light  sliver,  and  others  with  a  heavy  one,  thus  decreasing  or  increasing 
production.  The  heavier  production  is  most  suitable  for  common 
warp  yarns,  and  the  lighter  for  yarns  to  be  used  for  weft. 

Fig.  80  shows  the  side  elevation  of  a  sett  frame,  and  Fig.  81  the 
setting  out  of  a  set  of  drawing  frames  with  a  sett  frame.  A  is  the  can 


LONG  SPINNING  PREPARING   MACHINERY     115 


of  laps  from  spreader.  B  is  the  silk  lap  put  on  the  feeding  sheet  C 
and  passed  through  the  pressing  rollers  D,  the  retaining  rollers  E,  the 
fallers  F,  the  drafting  rollers  G,  the  carrier  rollers  H,  delivery  rollers 
J,  into  the  receiving  can  K.  The  four  heads  of  drawing  are  arranged 
with  the  first  head,  receiving  cans  from  the  sett  frame  at  L,  the 
second  head  receiving  cans  from  the  first  head  at  M,  the  third  head 
taking  from  N,  and  the  fourth  head  from  O,  the  silk  travelling  in  the 


D      E      F  G  H      J 


O 


FIG.  81. — Plan  of  set  of  drawing  heads. 

direction  of  the  arrows.  In  putting  up  the  ends  of  silk  behind  the 
drawing  frames,  it  is  necessary  to  see  that  they  are  not  crossed  under 
each  other,  as  shown  at  P  and  Q,  for  each  end  should  go  as  straight 
as  possible  into  the  receiving  rollers  R,  S,  and  T. 

Gill  rovinc/  frame. — The  sliver  from  the  finisher  head  is  taken 
behind  a  screw  gill  roving  frame  (Fig.  82).  This  is  a  drawing  frame, 
but  instead  of  delivering  its  production  into  a  can,  the  end  is  wound 


n6 


SILK  WASTE   SPINNING 


on  to  a  bobbin,  thus  making  the  first  real  twisted  thread.     Fig.  83 
shows  side  elevation  of  this  machine,  where  A  is  the  can  of  silk  from 


the  finisher  head  of  the  drawing,  B  is  the  feed  plate,  C  the  guides  for 
conducting  the  end  of  silk  S  under  the  roller  D,  from  whence   it 


LONG   SPINNING   PREPARING   MACHINERY      117 

travels  over  and  under  the  rollers  E  and  F  to  the  fallers  G,  which, 
rising  and  piercing  it,  carry  it  forward  to  the  drafting  rollers  H, 
which  deliver  it  to  the  flyer  and  spindle  J,  to  be  wound  on  to  the 
bobbin  K  in  the  form  of  a  soft  thick  thread. 

The  thread  produced  by  the  gill  roving  frame  is  called  the  slub- 
bing,  and  varies  in  thickness  and  weight  according  to  the  counts  of 
yarn  the  roving  is  being  prepared  to  make.  A  common  size  is  from 
1  to  1 J  hank — i.e.  1  hank  equals  840  yds.,  weighing  1  lb.,  and  1 J  hank 
equals  1260  yds.  to  the  pound.  The  finer  the  yarn  is  to  be  spun, 
the  finer  the  slabbing  should  be.  The  twist — i.e.  turns  per  inch — 
put  into  the  slubbing  is  very  small,  only  sufficient  to  hold  it  together. 
No  rule  relating  to  this  twist  can  be  given,  because  what  would  be 
hard  for  one  class  of  silk  would  be  too  soft  for  another,  so  each  over- 
looker has  to  work  according  to  his  own  ideas,  and  to  the  nature  of 
the  silk  under  his  care.  If  the  twist  gets  too  hard,  the  next  machine 


FIG.  83. — Gill  roving  frame  (side  elevation). 

will  be  unable  to  draw  properly,  and  nowadays  there  is  no  need  to 
make  any  mistake  on  the  hard  side,  because  the  machines  are  all 
made  on  the  cone-drawing  principle,  enabling  the  thread  to  be  wound 
on  the  bobbin  in  the  softest  possible  state.  The  finer  the  slubbing, 
the  more  twist  is  required.  Sometimes,  for  the  purpose  of  averaging 
and  levelling  the  slivers  more  than  has  been  possible  in  the  drawing 
frames,  two  ends  are  put  up  behind  each  gill  rover  spindle  and  drawn  into 
one.  The  frames  are  made  twenty-four  or  more  spindles  in  length,  and 
their  fallers  are  made  longer  than  the  fallers  in  the  drawing  machinery. 
If  made  too  long,  however,  they  spring  in  the  middle,  and  experience 
has  shown  that  they  work  well  if  made  long  enough  to  supply  three 
rollers,  equalling  six  spindles.  In  such  a  case,  the  frame  is  always 
built  in  sections,  each  having  its  own  screws  and  fallers,  and  each 
section  put  in  motion  simultaneously  by  means  of  a  shaft  and  bevel 
gearing  at  the  back  of  the  frame.  This  machine  can  be  so  arranged 


n8 


SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 


that  if  any  of  the  fallers  get  locked,  the  frame  will  automatically 
stop,  thus  preventing  any  serious  breakdown.  The  gill  rover  fallers 
are  only  set  with  pins  opposite  each  drafting  roller,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  84. 

Dandy  roving  frame. — Hitherto  all  the  drawing  has  been  done  by 


nr 


FIG.  84.— Gill  rover  fallers. 

means  of  rollers  and  fallers,  but  the  dandy  roving  frame  has  no  screws 
or  fallers,  the  drafting  being  done  by  rollers  only,  and  the  draft  being 
direct  from  the  front  rollers  to  the  back  rollers.  The  frames  are 
made  with  forty  or  more  spindles,  and  are  arranged  as  shown  in 
Fig.  85,  which  is  a  side  elevation,  and  Fig.  86,  which  illustrates  an 


FIG.  85. — Dandy  rover  (side  elevation). 

80  spindle  cone  roving  frame.  Two  or  three  bobbins — the  number 
again  depending  on  the  thickness  of  the  roving  and  the  count  it  is 
desired  to  spin — from  the  slubbing  frame  are  put  up  behind  each 
spindle  in  creels  A.  Each  end  is  guided  separately  into  the  back 
rollers  B,  and  thence  to  the  front  rollers  M,  N.  The  three  rows  of 


LONG  SPINNING  PREPARING   MACHINERY      119 


small  rollers  C  are  called  carrier  rollers,  and  are  revolved  at  a  pro- 
portionate speed  to  the  back  rollers  B,  thus  acting  as  carriers  or 
supports  of  the  roving  from  the  back  to  the  front  rollers.  The  back 
rollers  revolve  slowly,  and  the  front  rollers  quickly,  thus  drawing  out 
the  rovings  into  a  thinner  size  or  count.  The  bottom  front  roller  N 


FIG.  86. — 80  spindle  cone  rover. 

is  the  one  which  affects  the  draft,  the  top  one  being  only  a  wooden 
boss  covered  with  leather  or  rubber,  and  running  on  the  bottom  roller 
by  friction,  every  pair  on  their  own  axis  and  pressed  down  by  screws 
E.  When  the  attenuated  end  is  delivered  in  front  of  the  rollers,  it  is 
twisted  round  the  ring  of  the  flyer  F,  passed  through  the  twizzle  G,  and 
thence  to  the  bobbin  H  on  the  spindle  J.  These  machines  are  almost 


120  SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 

all  made  with  cone  driving,  so  that  the  roving  can  be  wound  on  the 
bobbin  with  a  soft  twist  without  fear  of  stretching  the  roving  between 
the  nip  of  rollers  aad  the  flyer.  The  rovings  are  known  as  4-hank, 
8-hank,  10-hank,  etc.,  a  4-hank  being  4  hanks  of  840  yds.  each  to 
the  pound,  and  a  10-hank  equalling  10  hanks  of  840  yds.  each  to  the 
pound,  and  so  on. 

Having  now  described  the  principles  of  all  the  preparing  machines 
previous  to  passing  on  to  the  spinning  frame  for  long  fibres — i.e.  first 
and  second  drafts — it  is  necessary  to  go  through  the  preparatory 
machinery  to  show  the  changes  necessary  for  shorter  drafts  or  fibres 
of  silk. 

DRAWING  SHORT  SILKS — INTERSECTING — SPREADING. — In  draw- 
ing machinery  such  as  spreaders,  sett  frames,  and  drawing  boxes, 
what  are  known  as  intersectors,  or  intersecting  Wallers,  are  used 


FIG.  87. — Intersector. 

for  the  third  and  fourth  drafts.  In  order,  also,  to  be  able  to  place 
the  drawing  rollers  as  near  to  the  fallers  as  possible,  so  that  the  nip 
of  the  rollers  may  have  hold  of  the  shorter  fibres  before  they  emerge 
entirely  from  the  fallers,  the  rollers  are  smaller  in  diameter  for  short 
silk  than  for  long,  and  the  same  remark  applies  to  the  back  roller  or 
porcupine.  Fig.  87  shows  the  principle  of  the  intersecting  fallers, 
where  A  is  the  feed  plate,  B  the  feed  rollers,  C  the  porcupine,  with 
three  small  iron  rollers  D  to  keep  the  silk  firm  on  the  pins  of  the 
porcupine ;  E  are  the  fallers  which  rise  into  the  silk,  F  are  the  fallers 
which  drop  into  the  silk,  while  G  are  the  drafting  rollers  which  feed 
the  rollers  H  and  J  described  in  Fig.  80. 

These  machines  are  designed  to  ensure  the  silk  being  properly 
drawn,  for  as  the  fibre  is  short  the  silk  is  inclined  to  be  loose  and 
fluffy,  and  it  is  difficult  to  make  the  faller  pins  rise  and  pierce  through 
it.  If  the  slivers  ride  on  the  top  of  the  pins  to  the  front  rollers,  the 


r  '  • 

LONG   SPINNING   PREPARING  MACHINERY     121 

rollers  simply  pull  the  silk  off  the  top  of  the  pin  the  same  thickness 
as  fed  to  the  back  of  the  fallers,  thus  making  a  bad  place;  or,  in 
some  cases  a  large  portion  of  the  silk  is  in  the  pins  and  a  small 
portion  on  the  top,  and  therefore  some  is  drawn  and  some  not  drawn, 
with  the  result  that  if  the  finished  sliver  is  held  up  to  the  light  it 
looks  thick  and  thin,  as  shown  at  B  in  Fig.  88,  the  sliver  at  A — one 
properly  drawn — being  given  for  comparison.  By  using  the  two  sets 
of  fallers,  one  with  pins  pointing  down  and  dropping  into  the  silk, 
and  the  other  rising  into  it,  it  is  almost  impossible  for  any  silk  to 
miss  being  drafted.  These  frames  require  even  greater  attention  than 
the  ordinary  gill  drawing  frames,  because  they  contain  the  complicated 
mechanism  necessary  to  give  motion  to  the  upper  fallers,  which  must 
work  extremely  accurately  to  prevent  locking  and  breaking.  The  silk 
also  must  be  put  in  thinner  and  worked  more  slowly  in  these  machines. 
The  machinery  for  short  drafts  would  be  set  out  as  follows  :  Inter- 
secting spreader,  intersecting  re-lapper,  sett  frame,  and  3  or  4  heads  of 
drawing  with  8  or  10  ends  of  sliver  up  behind  each  head.  From 


FIG.  88.— Slivers. 

there  the  sliver  would  go  to  a  gill  rover,  and  thence  to  the  dandy 
frame. 

The  speed  of  the  fallers  for  long  silk  is  about  300  drops  per 
minute,  for  short  silk  about  150  to  200  drops  per  minute. 

The  draft  of  long  silk  is  from  15  and  upwards  in  spreading,  from 
6  and  upwards  in  the  other  drawing,  machinery ;  while  for  short  silk 
it  is,  in  spreading,  from  10  and  upwards,  and  in  drawing  frames  from 
6  and  upwards. 

The  best  yarns  are  produced  by  having  the  drafts  nearly  equal  in 
each  machine.  The  draft  should,  of  course,  be  less  for  short  silk  than 
for  long,  but  the  twist  in  slubbing  and  drawing  must  be  more  for  short 
silk  than  long-fibred  silk. 

Care  should  be  taken  with  all  silks,  and  under  all  systems  of 
drawing,  that  the  drafting  is  not  done  twice  the  same  way.  Care- 
lessness in  this  has  caused  much  trouble  to  spinning  overlookers  and 
managers,  and  spoilt  much  yarn.  Drafting  twice  the  same  way  means 
that  a  sliver  has  been  put  twice  in  succession  through  a  drawing 


122 


SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 


operation  with  the  same  end  first,  and  this  causes  the  end  to  be  thick 
and  thin,  and  to  work  badly  in  the  succeeding  operation.  The  reason 
for  this  trouble  would  appear  to  be  best  illustrated  as  follows  :  The 
three  lines  in  Fig.  89  represent  three  slivers,  say  of  10  yds.  in  length, 
which  are  drawn  out  end  A  first,  with  12  of  a  draft,  into  120  yards 
of  sliver.  If  this  is  put  up  again  end  A  first,  and  again  with  12  of  a 
draft,  1440  yards  of  sliver,  or  144  times  the  length  of  the  original 


p '•*»-» 


FIG.  89.— Drafting. 


10  yds.,  will  be  obtained.  This  is  obviously  too  much  of  a  pull  in 
one  direction,  and  it  would  be  practically  impossible  to  get  the  silk  to 
run.  But  if  in  the  second  box  or  drawing  the  end  B  is  put  up  first, 
then  the  fibres  which  were  drafted  one  way  (arrow  C)  in  the  first  box, 
are  pulled  or  drafted  the  other  way  (arrow  D)  in  the  second  box, 
having  thus  moved  relatively  to  each  other  first  forwards  and  then 
backwards,  12  of  a  draft  each  way  instead  of  144  one  way. 

It  is  the  moving  back  of  the  fibres  in  each  drawing  operation  that 


FIG.  90. — Eotary  drawing  frame  (section). 

helps  to  keep  the  slivers  and  rovings  free  from  thick  and  thin  places, 
and  these  remarks  apply  to  all  drafting  operations,  from  sett  frame  to 
dandy  roving  frame  inclusive.  Therefore  overlookers  should  insist 
that  all  drawing  frame,  gill  roving  frame,  and  dandy  frame  attendants 
do  not,  while  following  their  respective  occupations,  upset  cans  of 
sliver  or  rewind  part  bobbins  of  rovings  without,  in  the  case  of  slivers, 
seeing  that  the  right  end  is  found,  and,  in  case  of  rovings,  that  they 
are  wound  twice  before  being  passed  on  to  the  next  machine. 


WASTE  DRAWING  OR  PREPARING  MACHINERY     123 

Rotary  drawing. — For  very  short  drafts — i.e.  fourth  to  sixth — the 
rotary-drawing  principle  is  good.  The  drafts  are  spread  very  thinly 
on  intersector  spreading  boxes,  respread  twice,  made  into  a  sliver  on 
an  intersector  sett  frame,  and  then  drawn  by  means  of  a  rotary  draw- 
ing frame  like  that  illustrated  in  Fig.  90  in  sectional  side  elevation, 
and  in  Fig.  91.  This  latter  is  a  photograph  of  two  heads  of  drawing, 
each  with  two  deliveries.  Six  or  more  cans  A  of  sliver  B  from  the 
sett  frame  are  placed. behind  the  first  drawing  head  and  conveyed  into 
the  back  retaining  rollers  C,  thence  under  the  porcupine  D,  and  over 


FIG.  91.— Rotary  drawing  frame. 

the  porcupines  E  and  F,  being  held  on  the  pins  of  the  two  latter  by 
means  of  a  small  metal  roller  G.  The  front  drawing  rollers  F  draw 
the  silk  through  the  pins  of  the  porcupines,  delivering  it  on  to  the 
leather  drawing  sheet  J,  which  in  its  turn  conveys  it  to  the  pressing 
rollers  K  and  delivery  rollers  M,  when  it  drops  into  the  can  N.  It  is 
well  to  have  the  funnel  L  made  to  revolve,  in  this  way  putting  a  false 
twist  into  the  sliver.  This  false  twist  helps  to  solidify  the  sliver, 
preventing  it  from  "flying  "  so  much,  thus  obviating  waste.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  use  from  two  to  four  heads  of  drawing,  the  number  depending 
entirely  on  the  character  of  the  spreading  and  respreading.  Usually 


I24 


SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 


four  heads  are  needed  to  make  a  level  sliver.  The  drafting  of  the 
silk  is  between  the  front  and  back  rollers,  and  the  porcupines  serve  as 
carriers  for  supporting  the  silk,  and  also  act  as  endless  fallers.  The 
pins  pierce  the  sliver  and  hold  it  steady  whilst  the  front  rollers  draw 
it.  The  top  of  front  porcupine  F  must  be  kept  higher  than  the  nip 
of  the  front  rollers,  thus  bringing  the  nip  of  the  rollers  and  the  point 
where  the  silk  leaves  the  pins  near  together  to  prevent  short  silk 
missing  drawing. 

Rotary  roving  frame. — After  drawing,  the  silk  is  taken  from  the 
finisher  head  to  the  rotary  roving  frame,  shown  in  Fig.  92  in  sectional 


FIG.  92.— Rotary  roving  frame. 

side  elevation.  Two  or  more  ends  are  drawn  together,  travelling  from 
the  cans  A,  over  the  feed-plate  B,  to  the  back  rollers  C,  under  and 
over  porcupines  D,  E,  F  to  the  front  drawing  rollers  G,  and  then 
wound  by  the  flyer  H  on  to  the  bobbin  J.  The  twist  is  kept  fairly 
soft,  so  that  the  next  machine — the  roving  frame — can  draw  easily. 
A  roving  frame  for  short  silk  works  on  the  same  principle  as  the  one 
illustrated  in  Fig.  85,  but  only  two  sets  of  carrier  rollers  are  needed, 
and  the  rollers  are  all  small  in  diameter. 

Dimensions  of  drawing  machinery. — The  following  tables  of 
dimensions  of  the  machinery  described  for  drawing  silk  will  be  found 
useful : — 


WASTE  DRAWING  OR  PREPARING  MACHINERY     125 


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WASTE  DRAWING  OR  PREPARING  MACHINERY     127 

Rotary  dr diving  frame. — Three  porcupines  per  head.     Pins  set 

20  to  22  per  inch.     Back  rollers:  bottom,  1J  in.  diameter;  pressing 
or  top,   2   in.  diameter.     Front  rollers :  bottom,   1    in.   diameter,   10 
flutes;  top,    1J    in.  diameter,    15   flutes.     Delivery   rollers:  bottom, 

2 1  in.  diameter ;  top,  3^  in.  diameter.     The  drafts  are  from  4  to  9, 
and  the  space  occupied  is  1 2  ft.  6  in.  by  3  ft.  6  in.  for  four  heads. 

Rotary  roving  frame. — Three  porcupines  per  spindle.  Back 
roller,  1^  in.  diameter ;  front  roller,  \%  in.  diameter,  32  flutes ;  top 
front  roller,  2f  in.  diameter.  The  top  front  roller  is  covered  with 
indiarubber  or  leather.  The  length  of  reach  from  the  back  to  the 
front  rollers  is  7J  in.,  the  drafts  are  from  4  to  10,  and  the  twist  from 
J  to  2  per  inch.  There  is  a  double-cone  regulating  motion,  single 
row  of  spindles,  4^  in.  pitch,  for  6  by  3  in.  bobbins,  and  the  space 
occupied  is  17  ft.  6  in.  by  3  ft. 

The  screw  gill  roving  frames  are  made  with  double-cone  regulating 
motion,  a  single  row  of  spindles,  four  spindles  per  head,  for  6  by  3  in. 
bobbins.  The  front  pressing  roller  is  covered  with  indiarubber  or 
hard  leather.  The  sliver  guides  on  the  back  apron  are  f  in.  wide, 
behind  the  gills  are  \  in.  wide,  and  twists  vary  from  J  to  2  turns  per 
inch.  The  frames  illustrated  are  arranged  with  special  gearing 
changes  to  run  the  fallers  at  a  uniform  speed  whatever  the  draft  or 
twist  may  be. 

The  dimensions  of  a  dandy  roving  frame  are  :  For  medium  lengths 
or  drafts  :  back  rollers,  1|  in.  diameter  ;  two  lines  carrier  rollers,  1  in. 
diameter ;  and  one  line  carrier  rollers  nearest  the  front  rollers,  f  in. 
diameter.  The  front  roller  is  2  in.  diameter,  36  flutes  per  inch,  and 
the  front  pressing  roller  is  2J  in.  diameter,  covered  with  indiarubber 
or  leather  and  weighted  by  springs  or  lever  and  weight.  The  length 
of  the  reach  is  from  7  to  12  in.  The  creel  is  made  to  carry  4  roving 
bobbins  per  spindle,  the  drafts  are  from  4  to  12,  twists  vary  from  1 
to  4  turns  per  inch,  the  space  occupied  is  25  by  3  ft.,  the  lift  is  6  in., 
and  the  bobbins  are  6  by  3  in. 

For  long  drafts  the  back  rollers  are  2  in.  diameter,  the  carrier 

rollers  nearest  the  back  rollers  are  1^  and  1  in.  respectively,  the  carrier 

rollers  nearest  the  front  rollers  are  |-  and  ^  in.  respectively,  the  front 

rollers  are  3  in.,  the  front  pressing  rollers  4  in.,  and  the  spindles  about 

in.  diameter. 


CHAPTER  IX 

SHOKT  SPINNING  MACHINERY 

SPREADING  short  fibres  of  silk  on  gill  spreading  machinery  is  not 
the  best  mode  of  dealing  with  shorts  when  levelness  of  thread 
irrespective  of  lustre  is  required.  The  fibres,  being  so  irregular  in 
length,  are  difficult  to  draw  level,  and  therefore  shorts  are  often 
carded  and  put  over  machinery  similar  to  that  used  in  spinning  fine 
cotton.  The  cards,  however,  dull  the  lustre  of  silk,  and  in  time  it  is 
quite  probable  that  the  processes  called  short  spinning  will  be  dis- 


\  G 


FIG.  93.— Scutching. 

continued  in  favour  of  gill  machinery.  Many^  books  (have  been 
written  on  the  mechanism  of  fine-cotton  spinning  machinery;  it  is 
only  necessary  here  to  briefly  glance  at  the  processes. 

Mixing. — The  shorts,  of  various  qualities  and  shades  of  colour, 
are  made  into  a  mixing  and  stacked  in  a  cool  cellar  for  some  days 
before  use,  in  order  to  condition.  They  are  then  scutched  by  means 
of  the  machine  illustrated  in  Fig.  93. 

Scutching. — The  silk  is  placed  evenly  on  lattice  feeder  A,  which 
carries  it  to  the  rollers  B.  These  deliver  it  to  the  action  of  the 
beaters  C,  which,  revolving  quickly,  beat  the  silk  against  the  grid 
bars  D,  thus  cleaning  the  silk  from  dust  and  other  impurities,  the 
dust,  etc.,  falling  through  the  grid  on  to  the  floor  of  the  machine. 
The  silk  is  carried  forward  in  a  loose  fluffy  state  to  the  cages  E, 
passing  then  to  the  calender  rollers  F  (in  the  direction  shown  by 
the  arrows),  and  is  made  into  a  lap  G. 

Carding. — When  complete  the  lap  is  taken  to  the  card  (Figs. 
94  and  95)  and  placed  at  A,  where  it  is  unwound  by  the  revolution 

128 


SHORT  SPINNING   MACHINERY 


129 


of  the  roller  B,  assisted   by  the    feed   roller  C,    which  delivers  the 
fleece    of  silk  to  the  taker-in  T.     This  taker-in  being  covered  with 


FIG.  94.— Flat  card  (section). 

coarse  wire,  pierces  the  silk,  and  carries  it  forward  to  the  cylinder 
D,  which  is  the  main  carding  cylinder.  The  teeth  of  the  carding 
cylinder  sweep  the  silk  off  the  taker-in  and  carry  it  forward  to  the 


FIG.  95.— Flat  card. 

carding  flats  F.  The  teeth  on  these  flats  are  set  to  face  those  of 
the  main  cylinder  D,  and  travel  forward  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
surface  of  the  cylinder,  but  at  a  slower  speed.  The  silk  is  thus 

9 


130  SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 

carried  against  the  teeth  of  the  flats,  and  sustains  a  thorough  open- 
ing and  carding.  After  the  action  of  the  flats,  the  silk  is  slightly 
raised  out  of  the  teeth  of  the  main  cylinder  by  the  action  of  the 
fancy  card  G,  thus  assisting  the  action  of  doffer  cylinder  H,  which 
takes  off  the  fleece  of  silk  from  the  cylinder  D.  The  doffer  works 
at  a  much  slower  speed  than  the  main  cylinder,  and  by  this  further 
straightens  and  stretches  the  fibres  as  they  leave  the  pin  points  at 
J,  whence  they  are  carried  on  the  underside  of  the  doffer  to  the 
vibrating  comb  K,  which  describes  a  short  arc  of  1J  in.  vertical 
movement.  This  comb  strips  the  fibres  from  the  face  of  the  doffer 
on  its  down-stroke  and  clears  itself  on  its  up-stroke.  The  thin  fleece, 
almost  the  width  of  the  doffer,  is  gathered  to  a  width  of  6  or  7  in. 
and  placed  into  a  funnel,  through  the  narrow  end  of  which  it  is 
drawn  by  the  calender  rollers  L,  carried  upwards  in  the  form  of  a 
ribbon  or  sliver  to  the  coiler  M,  and  coiled  into  the  can  O.  The 
flats  are  stripped  of  their  impurities  by  a  brush  and  comb  at  P,  and 
the  wires  are  always  kept  sharp  by  the  grinding  roller  at  R. 


FIG.  96.— Drawing  head  (section). 

Drawing. — From  the  cards  the  slivers  are  taken  to  the  drawing 
frame  (Figs.  96  and  97).  Six -or  eight  of  the  slivers  are  drawn  from 
the  cans  A,  and  pass  over  the  tumblers  B  of  the  back  stop  motion 
to  the  back  rollers  C,  through  the  carrier  rollers  D  and  E,  to  the 
front  drawing  rollers  F,  into  the  coiler  G  and  the  can  H.  Various 
automatic  contrivances,  electrical  and  mechanical,  are  arranged  to 
stop  the  machine  when  a  sliver  breaks  behind  the  machine  or  in 
front,  or  when  the  can  H  is  full  of  sliver.  The  silk  is  drawn  through 
three  or  four  heads  of  drawing  frames,  with  a  draft  varying  from 
3  to  8,  usually  drafting  in  accordance  with  the  number  of  ends  up — 
i.e.  three  ends  up  would  have  a  draft  of  3,  and  eight  ends  up  a  draft 
of  8. 

Stubbing  and  fine  frames. — These  are  used  in  accordance  with  the 
fineness  of  the  roving  required,  and  are  for  the  purpose  of  still  further 
elongating  and  stretching  the  fibres,  while  in  these  frames  the  silk 
receives  twist,  but  never  in  the  drawing.  For  coarse  counts  of  yarn 
it  is  usual  to  put  the  drawing  slivers  over  a  slubbing  frame  only ;  for 
medium  counts,  over  slubbing  and  intermediate  frames ;  and  for  very 


SHORT   SPINNING   MACHINERY  131 

fine    counts,  over  slubbing,    intermediate,    and    fine    roving   frames. 
The  slubbing  frame  receives   the  sliver  in  at  the  back  rollers,  passes 


FIG.  97. — Improved  drawing  frame. 

it  through;  the  carrier  rollers  to  the  front  drawing  rollers,  and  thence 
on  to  the  spindle  and  flyer,  which  wind  it  on  to  a  large  tube.     The 


FIG.  98. — Slabbing  frame. 

intermediate  and  fine  frames  are  built  in  the  same  style,  but  are 
made  to  receive  bobbins  instead  of  slivers  behind.  These  frames  are 
illustrated  in  Fig.  98,  where  A  is  the  slubbing  bobbin,  two  or  three 


i32  SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 

of  which  are  placed  behind  each  spindle.  The  ends  are  guided  to 
the  back  rollers  B,  through  the  carrier  rollers  C,  to  the  front  drawing 
rollers  D,  which  deliver  to  spindle  and  flyer  E,  eventually  winding  on 
to  a  bobbin  or  tube. 

Silk  cannot  be  carded  at  the  same  speed  and  in  the  same  weight  as 
cotton.  It  is  more  apt  to  nib  and  gather  electricity,  and  if  too  great 
a  speed  is  attempted  a  large  amount  of  waste  is  caused  by  the  fibres 
flying.  A  moderate  speed  will  give  the  best  results,  and  if  the 
cylinder  runs  at  about  160  revolutions  per  minute,  the  dofler  will 
only  need  to  run  at  about  16  revolutions  per  minute.  The  pro- 
duction per  card  per  week  is  from  80  to  1501b.  with  such  speeds. 

The  drawing  frame  rollers  are  about  1-J  in.  diameter.  Some 
spinners  card  the  short  fibres  on  the  breaker  and  finisher  card  system 
and  then  continue  drawing  operations  through  the  open  drawing 
frames  described,  or  through  the  rotary  gill  drawing  frames.  The 
latter  system  gives  a  clean,  level,  and  lustrous  thread. 


CHAPTEK  X 

SPINNING  AND  FINISHING  PROCESSES 

FLY  SPINNING. — All  classes  of  silk,  long  or  short,  can  be  spun  on  mules, 
ring  frames,  cap  frames,  or  flyer  frames,  if  the  drafting  rollers  are 
made  suitable,  a  long  strong  silk  needing  a  large  diameter,  and  a 


FIG.  99. — Flyer  spinning  frame. 

short  weak  silk  a  small  diameter  of  roller.  A  silk  of  irregular  length 
is  best  spun  on  a  medium  diameter  of  roller.  At  one  period  all  long- 
spun yarns  were  spun  on  flyer  frames  and  short-spun  silks  on 
mules,  but  ring  and  cap  frames  are  now  largely  adopted.  Fig.  99 
illustrates  the  principle  of  flyer  spinning,  and  Fig.  100  shows  the 
machine  in  work.  The  roving  bobbin  A  is  placed  on  the  peg  B,  one 
bobbin  to  each  spindle.  The  end  is  passed  between  the  back  rollers 
C  (which  revolve  slowly),  then  between  the  three  sets  of  carriers 
D,  E,  F,  and  reaching  the  front  rollers  G,  is  drawn  out  to  the  length 
required,  the  difference  in  the  speed  of  the  back  and  front  rollers 

133 


134 


SILK  WASTE   SPINNING 


SPINNING  AND   FINISHING  PROCESSES        135 

regulating  the  draft.  When  the  attenuated  end  comes  through  the 
front  roller  it  is  conveyed  through  the  top  board  H,  wrapped  round 
the  leg  of  the  flyer  J,  passed  through  the  twizzle  at  its  lower  end,  and 
then  wound  round  the  bobbin  K  on  the  spindle  L.  The  bobbin 
travels  up  and  down  the  spindle  on  the  lifter  plate  M,  thus  allowing 
the  silk  thread  to  be  wound  evenly  by  means  of  the  flyer. 

Besides  winding  the  thread  on  to  the  bobbin,  the  flyer  puts  twist 
into  the  thread  by  its  revolution  round  the  bobbin,  one  turn  of  twist  for 
each  revolution.  If  the  bobbin  and  flyer  travelled  at  the  same  speed 
the  thread  would  have  twist  put  in,  but  would  not  be  wound  on  the 
bobbin ;  but  the  bobbin  being  loose  on  its  spindle,  its  tendency  is  to 
remain  stationary,  and  it  is  therefore  "  dragged  "  around  by  the  thread. 
The  number  of  turns  per  inch  is  regulated  by  the  number  of  revolu- 
tions of  the  flyer  and  the  speed  of  delivery  of  the  front  rollers.  If 
these  are  4  in.  diameter  the  circumference  will  be  12 '5,  and  whilst 
revolving  at  40  revolutions  per  minute  will  deliver  500  in.  of  yarn 
per  minute.  The  spindle  revolves  at  6000  revolutions  per  minute, 
and  therefore  6000  -f-  500  gives  12  turns  per  inch. 

In  a  flyer  frame  the  bobbin  runs  quicker  the  fuller  it  gets,  and 
therefore  it  is  awkward  to  regulate  the  drag  so  that  the  end  does 
not  break.  Between  the  bobbin  bottom  and  the  lifter  plate,  paper, 
leather,  or  cloth  washers  are  placed  to  regulate  the  friction.  If  the 
bobbin  does  not  drag  enough,  the  thread  snarls  before  being  wound 
on  the  bobbin,  and  if  it  drags  too  hard  the  thread  breaks.  The  spin 
is  always  worst  in  a  fine  count  when  the  bobbin  is  full,  because  the 
thread  is  pulled  in  two  by  the  drag ;  and  worse  in  a  coarse  count, 
when  the  bobbin  is  empty,  because  the  drag  is  so  little  that  the 
thread  snarls. 

CAP  SPINNING. — A  cap  frame  (Fig.  101)  can  be  run  at  a  higher 
speed  than  a  flyer  frame,  and  this  higher  speed  makes  a  slightly 
rougher  yarn.  The  difference  between  cap  and  flyer  is  in  the  spindles 
and  caps,  which  are  stationary.  The  cap  is  a  steel  cap-shaped  shell 
placed  on  the  spindle,  having  its  inside  measurement  of  larger  diameter 
than  the  bobbin  head,  so  that  it  admits  the  bobbin  when  it  is  full  of 
yarn.  The  rotatory  portion  is  a  tube  fitting  inside  the  bobbin,  on 
the  spindle,  and  revolved  by  a  whorl.  To  put  twist  into  the  thread, 
instead  of  the  flyer  revolving  round  the  bobbin,  the  cap  bobbin 
revolves  round  the  spindle.  The  cap  forms  a  smooth  surface, 
round  which  the  thread  revolves  without  much  friction,  and  the 
bottom  rim  guides  the  thread  on  to  the  bobbin.  The  extra  speed  of 
a  cap  over  a  flyer  frame  makes  it  possible  to  produce  a  cheaper 
yarn,  and  as  silk  is  spun  to  fine  and  costly  counts,  cap  frames  are 
superseding  flyer  frames  very  rapidly. 

RING  SPINNING. — A  ring-spinning  frame  is  most  useful  for  short- 
fibred  silks,  because  of  the  possibility  of  regulating  the  tension  on  the 
thread  by  means  of  the  different  sizes  of  travellers.  Cap-spinning 


SPINNING  AND   FINISHING   PROCESSES        137 

frames  are  run  up  to  9000  revolutions  per  minute.  For  long-fibred 
silks  the  drawing  rollers  are  4  in.  diameter,  medium  fibres  need  3  or 
3J  in.  diameter,  and  short  silks  1J  to  2J  in.  diameter.  Mule  spinning 
is  not  liked,  because  the  rotatory  action  exerted  on  the  thread  when 
"on  the  stretch"  loosens  the  fibre,  and  so  dulls  the  lustre,  besides 
causing  more  loss  to  take  place  in  the  later  processes  of  gassing 
and  cleaning. 

Winding. — After  spinning,  the  yarn  is  ready  for  folding  into  two- 
fold or  three-fold  yarn.  In  many  cases  it  is  wound  before  folding. 
Winding  (Fig.  102)  consists  of  running  one  or  more  spun  threads 
from  the  spinning  bobbin  on  to  a  bobbin  of  large  diameter.  If 
only  one  thread  is  wound  on  to  one  bobbin,  the  only  object  in 
the  winding  is  to  ensure  less  doffing  and  creeling  in  the  twisting 
frame.  When  two  or  more  ends  are  wound  on  to  one  bobbin,  the 
above-named  object  is  one  reason  for  the  winding,  and  a  further 
reason  is  to  ensure  that  the  folded  and  finished  yarn  contains  the 
requisite  two  or  three  threads  throughout  the  whole  of  its  length. 
Therefore  a  winding  machine  is  fitted  up  with  stop  motions,  so  that 
when  any  thread  breaks,  the  receiving  bobbin  ceases  to  revolve  until 
the  attendant  ties  up  the  thread  again.  Many  spinners  consider  that 
winding  three  threads  for  sewing  cords,  before  twisting,  makes  a  more 
even  thread,  inasmuch  as  proper  tension  can  be  put  on  each  single 
thread,  so  preventing  one  strand  riding  on  the  others,  which  fault 
causes  a  weak  place,  besides  an  unsightly  thread. 

Copping. — Another  class  of  winding  is  required  when  the  single 
thread  is  used  for  weft.  The  yarn  is  then  only  spun  with  a  very 
soft  twist,  and  usually  wound  straight  from  the  spinning  bobbin 
on  to  a  long  paper  tube  by  any  of  the  usual  cop  or  pirn  winding 
machines.  If  a  short-spun  weft  is  required,  and  the  spinner  happens 
to  spin  on  mules,  then  the  yarn  can  be  sold  on  the  paper  tubes  on 
which  the  yarn  was  spun,  and  rewinding  saved. 

Twisting. — A  twisting  frame  is  practically  a  spinning  frame 
without  back  rollers  or  carriers,  and  therefore  without  draft.  It 
consists  of  rollers  to  draw  the  yam  from  the  spinning  or  wound 
bobbins,  and  these  same  rollers  deliver  the  yarn  to  the  spindles  for 
the  purpose  of  having  twist  put  in  the  thread.  The  twist  is  reckoned 
and  put  in  the  yarn  exactly  in  the  same  manner  as  in  spinning,  only 
twisted  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  spinning  twist.  The  effect  of 
twisting  is  to  untwist  the  single  yarn  whilst  twisting  a  two-  or  three- 
fold thread,  and  this  fact  should  be  borne  in  mind  if  a  hard-twist 
yarn  is  required.  The  yarn  should  be  twisted  hard  in  the  spinning, 
for  the  more  twist  put  in  the  folded  thread  the  less  remains  in  the 
single  thread.  Yarn  loses  a  little  length  in  twisting  proportionate  to 
its  thickness  and  the  amount  of  twist,  the  loss  or  shrinkage  thus 
varying  with  every  count  and  degree  of  twist. 

If  yarns  are  twisted  %fter  winding,  the  simplest  form  of  machine 


138  SILK  WASTE   SPINNING 

can  be  used,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  103,  which' ns  a  ring  doubling  or 


twisting'frame.     A? is  the  bobbin  on  to  which  two  strands  (two  single 
threads)  have  been  wound,  B  the  thread  travelling  in  the  direction  of 


SPINNING  AND   FINISHING  PROCESSES        139 

the  arrows  to  and  around  rollers  C  and  D,  thence  to  the  ring  and 
spindle  E,  the  latter  of  which  is  propelled  by  the  whorl  G  driven  by 
the  cylinder  H.  If  the  yarn  is  not  wound  before  twisting,  it  is  usual 
to  use  a  machine  which  has  an  automatic  arrangement  for  stopping 
the  spindle  whenever  the  single  thread  breaks  behind  the  rollers  or 
the  folded  strand  in  front  breaks  or  snarls. 

Twisting  frames  are  made  with  cap,  fly,  or  ring  spindles.  A 
flyer  frame  is  best  for  very  coarse,  heavy,  and  hard-twisted  yarns,  but 
silk  being  usually  spun  into  fine  counts,  the  ring  doubling  or  twisting 
frame  is  very  largely  used  on  account  of  the  speed  at  which  these 


FIG.  103.— Ring  twisting  frame. 

machines  can  be  run.  When  ring  frames  are  used  it  is  important  to 
have  perfectly  true  and  upright  spindles,  and  to  see  that  the  ring  is 
true  and  smooth,  and  the  spindle  set  exactly  in  the  centre  of  the  ring. 
The  travellers  must  be  kept  in  good  order,  and  the  thread  guides  set 
exactly  over  the  top  of  the  spindle  so  that,  the  yarn  makes  a  perfect 
cone  when  revolving. 

Cleaning  and  gassing. — Whilst  going  through  all  the  previous 
processes  the  thread  has  become  wild,  hairy,  and  rough,  and  in  many 
cases  shows  little  nibs  which  have  been  caused  by  the  curling  and 
breaking  of  fibres  in  the  drawing  processes,  by  bad  or  careless 


140 


SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 


dressing,  or  by  the  spinning  frame  rollers  having  been  allowed  to 
become  covered  with  short  fibres  of  silk  "  fluff,"  which  in  time  has 
wrapped  itself  round  the  thread.  All  these  faults  have  now  to  be 
removed  by  means  of  heat — lighted  gas  and  friction.  If  the  thread 
has  been  kept,  free  from  fluff,  and  is  the  product  of  a  properly 
dressed  and  drawn  silk,  then  its  defects  are  chiefly  projecting  fibres 


FIG.  104. — Cleaned  and  not  cleaned  yarns. 

and  a  general  hairiness  which  can  be  removed  by  passing  over  a  gas- 
light several  times.  If  it  contains  other  faults,  then  it  must  be 
frictioned.  An  uncleaned  yarn  is  represented  in  Fig.  104  at  A,  and 
a  cleaned  and  perfect  yarn  at  B. 

The  more  free  from  projecting  fibres  and  rough  thick  places  a  silk 
can  be  produced,  the  more  valuable  it  becomes,  because  of  its  smooth- 
ness and  consequent  lustre.  The  lustre  on  silk  is  peculiar  to  itself, 


FIG.  105. — Gassing  frame. 


and  can  only  show  to  perfection  when  every  pearl  of  twist  is  free 
from  fibre.  The  chief  methods  of  cleaning  and  gassing  are  shown  in 
Figs.  105,  106,  and  107.  In  the  former,  which  gives  side  elevation, 
A  is  the  bobbin  of  folded  yarn,  B  the  thread  of  silk  which  on  its 
passage  from  A  to  the  receiving  bobbin  E  is  wrapped  round  the  cones 
C,  thus  passing  through  the  gaslight  D.  The  cones  are  made  of  steel, 
and  revolve  on  pins.  If  the  thread  is  only  hairy,  the  silk  is  wrapped 


SPINNING  AND   FINISHING   PROCESSES 


141 


I42 


SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 


half  round  the  cones  so  as  to  pass  through  the  gas  three  to  twelve 
times  in  one  transition  of  the  thread  from  A  to  E.  But  if  yarn  is 
nibby  as  well  as  hairy,  then  it  is  wrapped  right  round  the  cone,  thus 
acutely  frictioning  itself,  and  so  throwing  off  the  nibs  at  the  point  of 
contact.  The  nibs  and  fluff  travel  up  the  cone,  and  so  away  from 
the  thread.  The  receiving  bobbin  E  is  propelled  by  a  drum  F. 
When  a  thread  breaks,  the  gaslight  can  be  moved  away  from  the 
position  shown,  so  that  the  attendant  can  rewrap  the  thread  on  the 
cones  without  burning  it ;  and  the  same  action  which  moves  the  light 
lifts  the  bobbin  E  off  the  drum  F,  thus  preventing  any  unnecessary 
friction  of  the  silk  on  the  drum.  A  reverse  action  takes  place  when 
the  end  is  tied  up  and  the  bobbin  placed  on  the  drum,  the  light  being 


FIG.  107. — Cleaning  frame. 

then  put  into  position  again.     The  lower  the  quality  of  silk  the  more 
passages  through  this  machine  are  necessary  to  cleanse  it. 

Fig.  107  shows  a  cleaning  or  frictioning  machine,  without  any 
gaslight.  A  represents  the  bobbin  of  folded  yarn,  and  B  the  thread 
travelling  in  the  direction  of  the  arrows  to  the  receiving  bobbin  E. 
The  thread  is  wrapped  around  the  revolving  runners  C,  which  are 
fixed  on  the  rising  and  falling  bar  D  During  the  passage  of  the 
thread  from  A  to  E  the  bar  D  is  oscillated  up  and  down  by  the 
linked  rods  F  and  the  crank  disc  G,  which  in  turn  is  driven  from  the 
cylinder  H.  Thus  the  rotary  cleaning  runners  C  have  a  rapid 
up-and-down  motion  for  the  purpose  of  still  further  frictioning  the 
thread  If  necessary,  the  yarn  can  be  run  over  a  gassing  frame  to 


SPINNING  AND   FINISHING  PROCESSES         143 

remove   the  fibre  not  taken  off  by  the   friction    cleaning    machine. 


After  cleaning,  the  silk  is  ready  for  reeling  or  for  winding  on  to  large 
bobbins,  from  which  it  is  warped. 


i44 


SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 


Reeling  and  ivarping. — Schappe  silk  is  reeled  on  a  swift  measur- 
ing 49  in.  diameter,  and  the  usual  length  of  a  skein  =  500  metres,  or 
1000  in.  Spun  silks  are  reeled  into  skeins,  and  then  made  up  into  5 
or  10  Ib.  bundles  in  England,  or  5  kilos,  on  the  Continent,  or  they  are 
made  into  warps  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  customers. 
In  England  the  reels  are  made  with  swifts  of  54  in.  diameter,  and  the 
yarn  is  cross-reeled  in  skeins  of  840  to  5040  yds.  A  skein,  in  the 
strict  sense  of  the  word,  is  840  yds.  in  length.  Both  reeling  and 
warping  are  such  well-known  processes  that  a  detailed  description 
would  be  useless  here,  but  Fig.  108  illustrates  the  reel. 

Washing.- — Many  yarns  are  sold  by  the  spinner  in  the  "grey"- 
i.e.  gassed  state.     In  other  cases  the  yarn  is  washed.     If  washed  in 
the  skein  the  following  is  a  good  method  for  the  treatment  of  about 
50  Ib.  of  silk.     The  skeins  are  placed  on  wood  rods,  taking  care  to 
spread  the  threads  out  as  open  as  possible,  as  at  A  in  Fig.  109.     These 


1     ^"*  —  ""*  ^A(Pfl 

D               |J                      J      •  —  ""^ 

M 

E 

i 

C                         p 

i 

1       T 

FIG.  109.— Yarn  washing. 

rods  of  silk  are  then  taken  to  the  washhouse  and  placed  in  a  wood 
vat  B  containing  40  gallons  of  hot  water,  into  which  about  6  Ib.  of 
best  white  oil  soap  has  been  dissolved. 

It  is  wise  to  see  that  the  water  is  not  boiling  when  the  silk  is  just 
placed  in  the  vat,  or  the  yellow  stain  caused  by  gassing  the  yarn  will 
be  burnt  or  boiled  into  the  silk.  An  attendant  is  required  on  each 
side  of  the  vat,  and  when  the  silk  has  become  thoroughly  saturated 
with  the  soapy  liquor,  the  rods  are  lifted  up  and  down  (positions  U 
and  D)  many  times,  first  dropping  the  silk  into  and  then  lifting  it 
out  of  the  water.  -  The  end  C  having  become  partially  cleansed,  the 
attendants  turn  this  on  the  rod  so  that  the  hitherto  unwashed  portion 
of  the  skein  E  is  in  the  water,  and  then  the  lifting  and  lowering 
motions  are  again  gone  through.  The  attendants  take  care  all  the 
time  that  the  threads  keep  straight,  untangled,  and  free  from  break- 
ages, and  after  about  thirty  minutes  of  these  constant  turnings  the 


f 

SPINNING  AND    FINISHING   PROCESSES         145 

rods  are  placed  close  together  at  one  end  of  the  vat,  and  the  silk  laid 


FIG.  110. — Improved  yarn  preparing  machine. 

;V:    ...  ... 

on  the  top  of  the  rods  to  allow  the  liquor  to  drip  out.     When  this 


10 


146 


SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 


lias  been  effected  the  silk  is  taken  to  a  fresh  vat  with  clean  water  and 
soap,  and  the  processes  repeated ;  but  in  this  case  the  water  can  be 
boiled  if  it  is  desired  to  swell  the  thread  and  make  it  bulky.  After 
this  the  water  is  wrung  out  of  the  skeins  either  by  hand  or  hydro 
extractor.  The  yarn  is  then  taken  to  a  stove  and  hung  on  rods  to 
dry,  and  when  dry  is  ready  for  conditioning.  Taken  straight  from 
the  stove  it  feels  harsh  and  stiff,  and  is  lustreless ;  but  after  being 
placed  in  a  cool,  damp  room  for  a  few  hours,  it  regains  its  softness, 
pliability,  and  lustre,  and  is  ready  for  bundling  up  and  delivering 
to  customers.  Usually  only  lace  yarns  and  hosiery  yarns  are 
washed,  most  other  yarns  being  delivered  in  hank  or  warp  to  the ' 
dyehouse  for  dyeing,  the  dyer  generally  washing  the  yarn  off  before 
dyeing. 

Lustreiny. — Many  yarns,  especially  after  being  washed  or  dyed, 
are  much  improved  in  lustre  by  passing  over  the  machine  (illustrated 
by  Fig.  110).  This  machine  is  constructed  to  lustre  yarns  in  the 
hank,  which  it  performs  very  effectually  by  stretching  the  hank  from 
centre  roller  to  small  roller  whilst  the  top  and  bottom  rollers  revolve 
tlie  hank  round  and  round  so  that  all  portions  of  the  thread  are  pro- 
perly frictioned. 

English  counts. — The  English  counts  or  size  of  spun  silks  are- 
calculated  as  follows  :  840  yds.  weighing  1  Ib.  would  be  1's,  then  counts 
120's  would  equal  120  skeins  per  pound,  each  skein  of  840  yds.  length. 
If  the  thread  consists  of  two  or  three  strands — i.e.  two-fold  or  three-fold 
— the  count  is  still  the  number  of  840  yds.  per  pound ;  thus  counts 
60's  of  two-fold  yarn,  expressed  60/2,  means  60  hanks  of  840  yds.  per 
1  Ib.,  and  represents  in  the  single-thread,  size  1/120's.  The  only 
exception  to  this  rule  is  in  the  case  of  three-fold  hosiery ;  for  instance, 
a  three-fold  40's  hosiery  yarn  is  spun  60's  single,  equalling  in  ordinary 
silk  counts  three-fold  20's. 

The  following  examples  in -tabular  form  "show  the  system  more 
clearly :  — 


Single  Yarns. 

y           2-fold  Yarns. 

3-fold  Yarns. 

3-fold  Hosiery  Yarns. 

3 

40 

||  :     ,, 

C 

ll 

« 

ia 

C 

?| 

"c   . 

1 

fl 

ii 

6^            §"1               j§ 

^2 

0^ 

O 

O 

|l 

O  ^ 

O    CO 

6 

|K 

0  gj 

oo  S            -g  | 

cc 

•I 

"2  2 

bo 
c 

0)    p, 

be 
c 

0  co 

^   X 

O   co                 ""^   X 

| 

0  co 

73  S* 

c 

0    0, 

c 

l! 

02 

>3w 

02 

i 

4 

02 

£w 

d 

CO 

4 

1«§ 

i, 

02 

12 

1/12's 

6       6/2-fold 

1/12's 

4 

4/3-fold 

1/12's 

4 

8/3-  fold 

1/12's 

30 

1/30's 

15     15/2   „ 

1/30's 

10 

10/3    „ 

1/30's 

10 

20/3   ., 

1/30's 

60 

1/60's 

30     30/2   ,, 

1/60's 

20 

20/3    „ 

1/60's 

20 

40/3    ,, 

1/60's 

120 

1/120's 

60     60/2   „ 

1/120's 

40 

40/3   ,, 

1/120's 

40 

80/3    „ 

1/120's 

SPINNING  AND   FINISHING  PROCESSES         147 


TABLES  OF  TWISTS. — The  next  series  of  tables  show  the  approxi- 
mate amount  of  turns  per  inch  in  singles  and  folded  yarns  for  various 
purposes,  assuming  that  the  yarn  is  of  good  quality — i.e.  long  drafts. 
If  a  poorer  quality  yarn  is  required,  the  turns  per  inch  would  need 
hardening,  especially  in  the  single  thread  of  the  two-fold  weft  table. 


Singles  for 
Weft. 

2-folds  for  Weft. 

2-folds  for  Warp. 

2-folds  for  Plush. 

Counts. 

Turns 
per 
Inch. 

Counts. 

Turns  per  Inch. 

Counts. 

Turns  per  Inch. 

Counts. 

Turns  per  Inch. 

Single. 

Folding. 

Single. 

Folding. 

Single. 

Folding. 

1/40's 
1/50's 
1/60's 
1/70's 
1/80's 
1/100's 

6 

8 

P 

10 

30/2-fold 

40/2    , 
50/2    , 
60/2    , 
80/2    , 
100/2    , 

12 
13 

ui 

16 
19 
21 

10 
11 
12 
14 
17 
19 

30/2-fold 

40/2    „ 
50/2    ,, 
60/2    „ 
80/2    „ 
100/2    „ 

15 
17 
19 
21 
24 
28 

14 
16 
18 
20 
23 
26 

35/2-fold 
40/2    „ 
45/2     „ 
50/2    ,, 

19 
20 

i 

17 
18 
19 
20 

2-folds  for  Flannel,  Silks, 
and  Embroidery. 

3-folds  for  Hosiery. 

3-folds  for  Sewing  Cords. 

Turns  per  Inch. 

Turns  per  Inch. 

Turns  per  Inch. 

^ 

« 

Single. 

Folding. 

Single. 

Folding. 

Single. 

Folding. 

2^/2-fold 

8} 

6£ 

6/3-fold 

12 

8 

4/2     , 

9 

9 

8/3 

14 

10 

6/2     , 

11 

11 

10/3 

10* 

101 

8/2     , 

12 

12 

30/3-fold 

ii 

3 

12/3 

18 

12* 

10/2     , 

14 

14           36/3 

12 

gl 

14/3 

19 

13 

12/2     , 

16 

16 

40/3 

13 

3£ 

16/3 

21 

14 

44/3 

18* 

3J 

18/3       ' 

22 

15 

50/3 

14 

4 

20/3 

23 

16 

60/3 

15 

«* 

22/3 

24£ 

Mi 

80/3 

19 

5 

24/3 

25£ 

17 

26/3 

27 

18 

28/3 

28 

19 

.. 

30/3 

29 

20 

All  the  twists,  excepting  the  three-fold  sewing-thread  yarns,  are 
made  with  what  is  commonly  termed  "right  twist."  That  is,  the 
turns  per  inch  are  to  the  right  in  the  folded  yarn,  and  to  the  left  in 
the  single  thread.  The  sewing  threads  are  opposite  to  this — namely, 
LEFT  in  the  folded  yarn  and  RIGHT  in  the  single  thread.  These  differ- 
ences can  easily  be  seen  by  holding  a  strand  of  yarn  between  the  hands, 
and  noticing  in  which  direction  the  perle  of  twist  appears  to  point. 

SCHAPPB  COUNTS. — The  yarn  count  of  schappe  (continental  spun) 
silks  expresses  the  number  of  500  metre  hanks  to  the  half-kilogramme 
(1-1  Ib.  English). 


CHAPTER   XI 
UTILISATION  OF  WASTE  PRODUCTS 

HAVING  particularised  all  the  processes  through  which  dressed  silk, 
long  drafts  and  short  drafts,  are  passed  to  convert  into  yarn,  we  have 
now  only  to  follow  the  course  of  the  waste  products  of  a  silk  spinning 


FIG.  111. — Derby  doubler  (section). 

establishment.  These  are :  silk  noils,  the  production  of  the  dressing 
frame  •  fly,  the  very  short  fibres  thrown  out  in  the  cards ;  roller  and 
leather  laps  in  the  drawing  machinery ;  roving  waste  in  the  roving 
frames ;  soft  waste  in  the  spinning  frames ;  singles  and  double  waste 
in  winding  and  twisting ;  burnt  fibre  in  the  gassing  process. 

Burnt  fibre  is  sold  as  waste,  and  used  for  artificial  manure  pur- 
poses. 

Roving  waste  and  soft  spinning  waste  can  be  washed  to  free  it 
from  grease  and  dirt,  and  be  then  dressed,  so  converting  it  again  into 
drafts  and  noils. 

Hard  single  and  folded  waste  can  be  dressed  on  hand  machines,  or 
put  through  a  garnett  machine. 

The  longest  kind  of  roller  and  leather  lap  waste  can  be  fed  into 
the  spreading  machine,  converted  into  sliver,  and  mixed  with  the 
lowest  quality  going  through  the  machinery,  putting  one  or  two 
ends  up  in  the  first  head  of  the  drawing.  The  short  fibre  can  be 
mixed  with  roving  waste  and  dressed. 

The  longest-fibred  fly  waste  is  recarded,  thus  being  made  into  a 
sliver  and  mixed  in  the  drawing  frames.  The  shortest-fibred  fly  can 
be  put  through  the  same  machinery  as  exhaust  noil. 

148 


UTILISATION    OF   WASTE    PRODUCTS 


149 


Noil  treatment. — Noils  are  first  opened  by  a  scutching  machine 
and  then  carded.  The  carded  slivers  are  afterwards  taken  to  a  Derby 
doubler. 

Derby  doubling. — This  process  is  carried  out  for  the  purpose  of 
winding  a  certain  number  of  carded  slivers  together  on  to  a  wooden 
core  or  drum.  From  twelve  to  eighty  cans  of  sliver  can  be  placed 
side  by  side  on  either  side  of  a  slanting  table  A,  Figs.  Ill  and  112, 
and  the  sliver  is  passed  over  the  spoon  levers  B,  thence  through  the 
guide  plates  C  to  the  wrooden  drum  D.  This  latter  is  revolved  by 
means  of  fluted  rollers  E,  F,  and  the  slivers  all  wound  into  one  mass 
called  a  lap,  and  compressed  by  the  pressure  roller  G,  wrhich,  being 


FIG.  112.— Derby  doubler. 


mounted  in  slot  bearings,  rises  as  the  slivers  on  the  drum  D  increase 
in  diameter.  If  a  can  becomes  empty  or  an  end  breaks  between  the 
can  and  the  receiving  rollers,  the  spoon  lever  is  arranged  to  drop  and 
automatically  stop  the  machine,  so  ensuring  an  equal  number  of  ends 
of  sliver  throughout  the  length  of  the  lap.  The  laps  are  next  mounted 
behind  a  combing  machine,  which  may  be  of  the  Noble,  Lister,  or 
Heilmann  type. 

Combing. — A  comb  is  for  the  purpose  of  removing  from  the  silk 
all  nops,  dirt,  straws,  for  eliminating  fibres  below  a  predetermined 
length,  and  delivering  the  combed  material  in  the  form  of  a  sliver. 
The  Heilmann  principle  is  a  very  good  one  for  silk  fibres,  and  is 
illustrated  in  Figs.  113  and  114.  The  lap  is  placed  at  A,  and  is 


150  SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 

revolved  slowly  by  rollers  under  it,  the  sliver  passing  to  the  pressure 
roller  B  and  thence  to  the  feed  grid  C.  This  latter  consists  of  two 
smooth  brass  grids  into  which  fit  the  pins  of  the  overhead  comb  D. 
When  the  nip  E  is  closed,  the  feed  comb  D  being  lifted,  the  grid 
moves  back  for  a  portion  of  sliver;  then  the  comb  D  descends, 
penetrating  the  sliver.  Then,  the  lower  hinge  of  the  nip  being  opened, 
the  silk  is  traversed  through  the  mouth  of  the  nip,  which  closes  and 
so  holds  fast  a  tuft  of  silk,  projecting  so  that  the  teeth  of  the  comb  F 
on  the  comb  revolving  can  comb  or  dress  the  fibres.  The  short  fibres 
(exhaust  noils)  G  which  collect  on  the  teeth  of  the  comb  are  removed 
by  a  quickly  revolving  brush  H,  which  deposits  the  combings  on  to  a 


FIG.  113. — Combing  (section). 

doffer  roller  J,  from  which  they  are  stripped  as  a  broad  fleece  by  the 
doffer  comb  K  and  drop  into  the  box  L.  When  the  tuft  of  silk  is 
sufficiently  combed  the  rollers  M  are  operated  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
lay  hold  of  the  combed  portion,  and  so  draw  the  other,  or  uncombed, 
end  of  the  tuft  through  the  revolving  teeth  of  the  cylinder,  which 
clears  the  silk,  as  described,  for  the  first  end.  The  combed  tuft  is 
delivered  to  the  creeper  N,  formed  into  a  sliver,  and  delivered  to  the 
can  P. 

The  proportion  of  combed  sliver  to  combings  (exhaust  noil) 
can  be  varied  by  adjusting  the  closeness  of  comb  to  nip,  so  that  all 
fibres  below  f,  If,  etc.,  of  an  inch,  pass  into  noils.  The  more  fibre 


UTILISATION    OF   WASTE    PRODUCTS  151 

taken  out,  the  cleaner  the  resulting  combed  sliver  and  the  greater  the 
production  of  noil.  The  combed  sliver  is  used  by  short  spinners, 
being  either  made  into  a  combed  yarn,  or  more  often  a  certain  number 
of  the  slivers  are  put  in  the  drawings  and  so  amalgamated  with  some 
other  carded  quality  of  shorts. 


FIG.  114. — Improved  combing  machine  (Heilmann  system). 

Exhaust  noil  spinning — Garnettiny. — Exhaust  noils  are  made 
into  coarse  yarns  on  the  woollen  principle.  The  first  process  is 
designed  to  open  or  loosen  the  silk,  and  is  much  the  same  as  scutching. 
Next,  the  silk  is  carded  or  garnetted  on  the  machine  shown  in  Fig. 
115.  It  is  fed  by  hand  to  the  feed-box  A,  then  carried  up  the  pin- 


FIG.  115. — Garnetting  machine. 

studded  creeper  B  in  a  certain  regular  quantity,  and  delivered  by 
means  of  the  rollers  C  and  D  to  the  weigh-box  E,  which  opens 
automatically  when  it  has  received  a  predetermined  weight  of  silk. 
It  drops  the  silk  on  to  the  feeder  F,  which  delivers  to  the  taker-in 
rollers  G,  which  in  turn  take  it  to  the  breaker  card  H.  The  doffer 


SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 


cylinder  Z  transfers  the  carded  silk  to  the  intermediate  cylinder  J  and 
dotfer  K,  which  in  turn  delivers  to  the  finisher  card  L  and  doffer  M, 
and  thence  to  the  condenser  bobbin  N.  The  object  of  condensing  is  to 
convert  the  full- width  fleece  of  silk  on  the  cylinder  L  into  a  number 
of  thin,  loose  slivers.  One  or  two  doffer  cylinders  M  (one  only  is 
shown)  are  used  to  strip  the  swift  L.  These  are  covered  with  card 
rings  an  inch  wide,  with  an  inch  blank  space  between  each  card  ring, 
the  blank  of  the  top  roller  being  above  the  card  of  the  bottom  roller, 
thus  ensuring  an  entire  stripping  of  the  surface  of  the  swift.  The 
ends  on  the  strips  of  card  on  the  doffer  M  are  then  conveyed  to  the 
rubbing  leathers  O,  P.  These  are  endless  leather  belts  carrying 
forward  the  thin  ribbon  of  silk  between  them,  but  at  the  same  time  a 
sidewise  motion  is  imparted  which  rubs  the  silk  into  a  loose,  round, 
pith-like  roving  without  any  twist  in  it.  On  leaving  the  leathers,  the 
ends  are  conveyed  to  the  bobbin  N,  on  to  which  they  are  wound 
ready  for  spinning. 

Mule   spinning. — The  condenser   bobbins  are  placed  behind  the 


FIG.  116.— Mule  spinning. 

machine  shown  in  Fig.  116,  and  the  ends  of  silk  conveyed  to  the 
rollers  B.  These  rollers  correspond  to  the  back  rollers  of  the 
spinning  machines  previously  described,  for  they  do  not  draft  the 
roving.  The  roving  being  delivered  by  the  rollers  B,  is  wrapped 
round  the  spindles  C  fixed  in  the  carriage  D.  This  carriage  is  close 
up  to  the  rollers  at  the  commencement  of  the  draw ;  but  as  soon  as 
the  rollers  revolve,  delivering  roving,  the  carriage  traverses  away  from 
the  rollers  at  such  a  speed  as  to  keep  the  roving  stretched,  but  without 
drafting  it.  The  spindles  are  meantime  turning  slowly,  thus  putting 
a  little  twist  in  the  roving.  When  the  carriage  has  gone  half  its 
journey,  the  rollers  B  cease  to  revolve,  but  the  carriage  travels  on, 
thus  stretching  out  the  roving  from  1  yd.  to  2  yds.  in  length ; 
while,  as  the  spindles  are  still  revolving,  more  twist  is  still  going  into 
the  thread.  When  the  carriage  stops,  the  spindles  revolve  still  more 
quickly  until  sufficient  twist  is  put  into  the  yarn,  and  the  carriage  is 
then  traversed  back  to  the  rollers,  while  the  spun  thread  is  wound  on 
to  the  spindles  during  this  backward  journey. 


SILK 


FIG.  117. — Diagram  of  all  processes. 


154  SILK   WASTE   SPINNING 

The  count  of  the  yarn  is  regulated  chiefly  by  the  size  of  the 
rovings  delivered  by  the  condenser,  which  in  turn  is  regulated  by  the 
amount  fed  into  the  cards  at  the  commencement.  After  spinning,  the 
silk  noil  yarn  is  often  sold  in  the  singles,  but  if  required  two-fold  it 
can  be  doubled  on  any  class  of  doubling  or  twisting  machinery. 

In  conclusion,  a  summary  of  the  various  processes  is  given 
diagrammatically  in  Fig.  117,  by  which  it  will  be  possible  at  a  glance 
to  trace  the  fibre  from  the  silk  moth  to  the  finished  yarns  of  the 
throwster  and  waste  spinner,  and  the  lines  to  the  right  in  each 
operation  show  to  what  purpose  is  placed  the  waste  products  of  that 
operation.  Arrow  heads  indicate  the  proper  directions  to  follow  each 
lin«  of  waste  products. 


THE    END 


INDEX 


ADULTERATIONS  in  soap,  49,  50. 

in  waste  silk,  66,  67. 
Ammonia,  use  of,  in  washing  waste, 

62. 

Amount  of  moisture  in  silk,  35. 
Analysis  of  curd  soap,  49. 

of  dried  silkworms,  5. 

of  fibroin,  5. 

of  mulberry  leaves,  5. 

of  sericin,  5. 

of  silk  fibre,  6. 
Anther ca  mylitta,  6. 
Assam,  8. 
Attacus  Cynthia,  9,  10. 

BAD  drying  of  waste  silk,  63,  64. 

Bale  opening,  waste  silk,  45-47. 

Bave,  4. 

Beating  cocoons  and  waste,  74,  75. 

Blaze,  38. 

Bleaching,  65,  66. 

Board  turning  in  silk  dressing,  88. 

,,      planing  in  silk  dressing,  102. 
Boiling  silk  waste,  47,  56,  57,  60. 

,,       too  violent,  60. 

,,       recipes  and  chemicals  for,  61. 
Bornbyx  mori,  5. 
Bookboards  (waste  dressing),  80. 
Books  (silk  throwing),  13. 
Bright  silk  and  bright  waste,  24. 
Brins,  3,  60,  61. 
Buying  raw  silk,  terms  of,  20. 

,,       waste  silk,  terms  of,  41,  42. 

CANTON  gum,  39. 

,,        seychuen,  39. 
Caps  (raw  silk),  13. 
Cap-spinning  machinery,  135. 
Carbonisation,  67,  68. 
Card  speeds,  132. 
Carding,  128,  129. 


Cards  on  dressing  machinery,  84,  85. 
Chemicals  for  boiling  waste,  61. 
China  cnrlies,  40. 

,,          ,,       home  and  European,  38, 

39. 

,,          ,,        Shanghai,  39. 
,,      waste,  38. 
Circular  dressing  frame,  92. 
Cleaner's  waste  (silk  throwing),  27. 

,,        bars  (silk  throwing),  27. 
Cleaning  (silk  throwing),  27. 

,,        yarn  (silk  waste),  142. 
Cocoon,  3. 

beating,  74,  75. 
opening,  76,  77. 
pierced,  9. 
reeling,  12. 
selection,  11. 
Cold  process  of  soap  making,  51,  52. 
Colour  of  silk,  6. 
Comb  for  dressing  silk  waste,  84,  85. 

,,     stripping,  89. 
Combing,  149. 
Company's  terms,  20,  21. 
Condensing,  152. 
Conditioning,  34,  35,  64. 

.,  silk  waste  boiled,  68. 

,,  yarn,  146. 

'floor,  69,  70. 
,,  machine,  71. 

Continuous  dressing  frame,  95-97. 
Copping,  137. 

Cost  of  dressing  silk  waste,  90,  91. 
Counts  of  yarn,  English  method,  146. 
,,  metric      or      schappe 

method,  147. 
Crops  of  silk,  19. 
Curd  soap,  49. 
Curlies,  40. 


155 


DANDY  roving  frame,  118. 


156 


INDEX 


Degumming  loss  in  thrown  silk,  25. 
,,  ,,       waste  silk,  64. 

,,  process  of,  waste  silk,  47, 

56,  64. 

Deniering,  33. 
Derby  doubler,  149. 
Diagrams,  principles  of  dressing  frames, 

104. 

„  ,,        of  drafting,  122. 

of  stripping,  80. 

,,         illustrative  of  all  processes, 
153. 

Diameters  of  silk  fibre,  6. 
Dimensions    of    machinery,    drawing, 

125-127,  132. 
Dimensions  of   machinery,    spinning, 

137. 

Discharging,  47,  56. 
Discoloration,  cause  of,  in  silk  waste, 

25. 

Doppione,  18. 

Doubling  (thrown  silk),  28,  29. 
(silk  yarn),  137,  139. 
Drafting,  121,  122. 
Drafts  (dressed  silk),  89. 

„       examination     of     same,      107, 
108. 

Drawing  fillers,  109,  110. 
intersectors,  120. 
machinery,  111-116. 
open  roller,  130. 
principle  of,  107. 
rotary,  123. 
Dressing,  cost  of,  90,  91. 

economical  method  of,  99. 
waste  silks,  81-105. 
Drying,  25,  62,  63. 
bad,  63,  64. 

ECONOMICAL  method  of  silk  dressing, 

99. 

Eggs  of  silk  moth,  3. 
Ends  up  of  sliver  (silk  waste  drawing), 

113. 

European  wastes,  39,  43. 
Exhaust     noil    spinning    machinery, 

151. 

"  FAKED  "  silk  waste,  65. 
Fallers,  109,  118. 

speed  of,  121. 
Fibres,  diameter  of  silk,  6. 
Fibres,  lengths  in  dressed  silk,  106. 
Fibroin,  4,  5. 
Filature  reeling,  15. 
Filling,  waste  silk,  78-81,  94,  95. 
Fine  roving  frame,  130. 


Flat     frame     dressing,     waste     silk, 

83. 
Flyer,  silk  throwing,  31. 

,,      spinning  frame,  133. 
Folding,  28,  29,  137. 
Food  of  silkworm,  6. 
Foreign    matters    in    silk   waste,    66, 

67. 
French  China  waste,  43. 

,,      mixed  waste,  43. 
Frisons,  38. 

GARNETTING,  151. 
Gassing  fibre,  148. 

,,       silk  yarns,  140. 
Gill  roving  frame,  115. 
Gills,  109,  118,  121. 
Glossary,  xiii. 
Graine,  3. 
Grant  reeling,  31. 
Gum,  4,  47. 

,,     loss  of,  25,  64. 

,,     liquors,  61. 

HANGCHOW,  39. 
Hard  waste,  148. 
Hydro  extractor,  58,  59. 

INDIAN  wastes,  39. 

Inframe  for  silk  dressing.  86. 

Inspection  of  raw  silk,  19. 

,.          of  waste  silk,  42. 
Intersector  drawing  machinery,  120. 
Italian  China  waste,  43. 
Iwasbiro  noshu,  41. 

JAPAN  silks,  17. 
,,      wastes,  41. 

KIKAI  Kibizzo,  41. 
Knubs,  43. 

LANDING  silk  wastes,  43. 
Laps,  filling  machinery,  76,  95. 

,,     silk  spreading,  110,  111. 
Legal    amount   of    moisture    in    silk, 

35. 
Lengths     of    fibre     in     silk      drafts, 

106. 

London  terms,  21. 
Long  spinning,  106. 
Loopy  threads  (silk  throwing),  28. 
Loss    in    degumming  (thrown   silks), 

25. 
Loss    in     degumming    (silk    wastes), 

64. 
Lustreing  silk  waste,  59. 


INDEX 


157 


Lustreing  silk  yarn,  146. 
Lyons  terms,  21. 

MANGLE  machine,  59. 
Moisture  in  silk,  35,  64. 
Mosses,  13,  23. 
Mule  spinning,  152. 

NANKIN  buttons,  38. 
Nett  silk.     See  Glossary. 
Noils,  long,  90. 

,,      exhaust,  151. 

,,      treatment,  149. 
Noshito  Joshiu,  41. 
No-throw,  28. 

OPEN  drawing,  130. 
Opening  bales,  45-47. 

,,        cocoons  and  waste,  76,  77. 
Organzine,  29. 

PACKING  and  shipping  raw  and  waste 

silks,  19,  42,  43. 
Farter's  waste,  24. 
Pernyi,  9. 

Planing  bookboards,  102. 
Punjum,  40. 

QUALITIES  of  raw  silks,  14-18. 

,,          of  waste  silks,   37-41,   43, 
44. 

RAW  silk.     See  Glossary. 
,,  inspecting,  19. 

,,  purchasing  terms,  21. 

,,  shipping,  19. 

Re -dressing  silk  wraste,  91. 
Reeling  cocoons,  12. 
,,       grant,  31. 
,,       thrown  silk,  31. 
,,       yarn,  143,  144. 
Re- lapping  dressed  silk,  111. 
Re-reels,  14. 
Rotary  drawing,  123. 

SCHAPPE  counts,  147. 

Schapping,  48,  53,  54. 

Screwing-up  machine,  103. 

Scroop,  35. 

Scutching,  128. 

Selection  of  cocoons,  11. 

Sericin,  4,  5. 

Sett  frame,  111. 

Seychuen  waste,  39. 

Shanghai  waste,  39. 

Shipping  waste  silk,  42,  43. 

Short  fibre,  filling  machine  for,  94,  95. 


Short  spinning,  106.  120,  128. 
Silk  analysis,  6. 
colour,  6. 
crops,  19. 
fibre  diameter,  6. 
suitable  for  schapping,  55. 
throwing,  22. 
Silkworm  food,  6. 

,,         rearing,  3. 
Singles  (silk  throwing),  31. 
Sizing  (silk  throwing),  32. 
Sliders,  84,  86,  87. 
Slips,  13,  23. 
Slivers,  120,  121. 
Slubbing,  117,  130. 
Soap,  49. 

,,     adulterations,  49-51. 
,,     making,  51,  52. 
Soaped  silk,  25. 
Soft  spinning  waste,  148. 
Softening  water,  48. 
Sorter's  waste,  24. 
Sorting,  24. 
Speed  of  cards,  132. 
,,      of  fallers,  121. 
Spinning  (silk  throwing),  30. 

(silk  waste),  133,  135,  152. 
Splitter's  waste  (silk  throwing),  24. 
Splitting  (silk  throwing),  23. 
Steam  waste,  37. 

,,      filatures,  15. 
Stripping  combs,  89. 
Suppleing,  72,  73. 
Swiss  China,  43. 

TABLES  of  dimensions   of  machinery, 

125-127,  132,  137. 
,,       of  loss  in  degumming,  64,  65. 
,,       of  counts,  146. 
,,       of  twists,  147. 
Tamas,  41. 
Terms  of  purchase,  raw  silk  and  waste, 

20,  21,  41,  42,  44. 
Tests   for    "condition"   of  gum   silk, 

64. 

Throwing  silk,  22. 
mill,  30. 
Tram,  28. 

Treatment  of  noils,  149. 
Tsatlee  reel,  13. 
Turning-in  board,  88. 
Tussore,  6,  38. 
Twist,  31. 
Twisting,  137,  139. 

VIOLENT   boiling    or    degumming    of 
silk  waste,  60. 


158  INDEX 

WADDING,  38.  I  Webbing,  86. 

Warping,  143.  ;  Weighing  for  spreading,  108. 

Washing,  schappe,  54,  55.  i  Wild  worms,  9. 

,,         with  ammonia,  62.  Winder's  waste,  27. 

,,         silk  throwing,  25.  !  Winding  (silk  throwing),  26. 

,,         yarn,  144.  .,         (silk  yarn),  137. 

Waste,  silk,  how  produced,  36,  37. 


Water  softening,  48. 


YAMA  mai,  S, 


Printed  by  MORRISON  &  GIBB  LIMITED,  Edinburgh. 


Catalogue 

_  OF      ' 

Special   (Deefjnieal  JDooks 


FOR 


MANUFACTURERS,  TECHNICAL  STUDENTS  AND 
WORKERS  SCHOOLS,  COLLEGES,  ETC. 

BY    EXPERT    WRITERS 


INDEX  TO  SUBJECTS. 

PAGE 

PAGE 

PAGE 

Agricultural  Chemistry     ...  10 

Extracts,  Wood     29 

Pigments,  Chemistry  of  ...     2 

Air,  Industrial  Use  of        ...  12 

Evaporating  Apparatus  ...  26 

Plumbers'  Work     27 

Alum  and  its  Sulphates     ...     9 

External  Plumbing           ...  27 

Porcelain  Painting           ...  17 

Ammonia       9 

Fats    5,6 

Pottery  Clays        16 

Aniline  Colours        3 

Faults  in  Woollen  Goods...  21 

Pottery  Decorating          ...  15 

Animal  Fats  6 

Flax  Spinning         24 

Pottery  Manufacture       ...  14 

Anti  corrosive  Paints         ...     4 

Fruit  Preserving    30 

Pottery  Marks        16 

Architecture,  Terms  in     ...  29 

Gas  Firing    26 

Power-loom  Weaving       ...  20 

Architectural  Pottery        ...  15 
Artificial  Perfumes  7 

Glass-making  Recipes      ...  16 
Glass  Painting        17 

Preserved  Foods    30 
Printers'  Ready  Reckoner  31 

Balsams          10 
Bibliography  32 
Bleaching       23 

Glue  Making  and  Testing..     8 
Greases         5 
Hat  Manufacturing           ..    20 

Printing  Inks          3 
Recipes  for  Oilmen,  etc.  ...     3 
Resins           10 

Bleaching  Agents    23 
Bone  Products         8 

Hemp  Spinning      24 
History  of  Staffs  Potteries  16 

Risks  of  Occupations       ...  12 
Riveting  China,  etc.          ...  16 

Bookbinding  31 

Hops  28 

Sanitary  Plumbing            ...  27 

Brick-making            ...         14,  15 

Hot-water  Supply  28 

Scheele's  Essays  9 

Burnishing  Brass    ...         ...  27 

How  to  make  a  Woollen  Mill 

Sealing  Waxes       11 

Carpet  Yarn  Printing         ...  21 

Pay             21 

Silk  Dyeing  22 

Casein             4 

India-rubber  13 

Silk  Throwing        18 

Celluloid         31 

Industrial  Alcohol  10 

Smoke  Prevention  26 

Ceramic  Books        ...  14,  15,  16 

Inks     3,11 

Soaps            7 

Charcoal        9 

Iron-corrosion        4 

Spinning       21 

Chemical  Essays     9 

Iron,  Science  of     26 

Staining  Marble,  and  Bone  30 

Chemistry  of  Pottery        ...  16 

Japanning     28 

Steam  Drying        19 

Chemistry  of  Dye-stuffs    ...  22 

Jute  Spinning         24 

Sugar  Refining       32 

Clay  Analysis           16 

Lace-Making           20 

Steel  Hardening     26 

Coal-dust  Firing      26 

Lacquering  27 

Sweetmeats  30 

Colour  Matching     22 
Colliery  Recovery  Work  ...  25 

Lake  Pigments       2 
Lead  and  its  Compounds  ..11 

Tanning  Extracts  29 
Technical  Schools,  Hand- 

Colour-mixing for  Dyers  ...  22 

Leather  Industry   ...          ..  13 

book  to  the          32 

Colour  Theory         22 

Leather-working  Materials  14 

Terra-cotta  15 

Combing  Machines  24 

Libraries       ..  32 

Testing  Paint  Materials  ...    4 

Compounding  Oils  6 

Lithography  31 

Testing  Yarns        20 

Condensing  Apparatus      ...  26 

Lubricants    ..5,6 

Textile  Fabrics      ...         19,20 

Cosmetics      8 

Manures        8,  10 

Textile  Fibres        ...        20,  24 

Cotton  Dyeing          22 

Meat  Preserving     30 

Textile  Materials  20 

Cotton  Spinning      24 

Mineral  Pigments  3 

Timber          29 

Damask  Weaving    21 

Mineral  Waxes       6 

Varnishes     5 

Dampness  in  Buildings     ...  29 

Mine  Ventilation     25 

Vegetable  Fats      7 

Decorators'  Books  28 

Mine  Haulage         25 

Vegetable  Preserving      ...  30 

Decorative  Textiles            ...  20 

Mining,  Electricity            ...  25 

Waste  Utilisation  11 

Dental  Metallurgy  25 

Needlework             20 

Water,  Industrial  Use     ...  12 

Dictionary  of  Paint  Materials  2 

Oil  and  Colour  Recipes    ...     3 

Water-proofing  Fabrics  ...  21 

Drying  Oils    ...         5 

Oil  Boiling    5 

Waxes          6 

Drying  with  Air       12 
Dyeing  Marble        ...         ...  30 

Oil  Merchants'  Manual    ...     6 
Oils                                             5 

Weaving  Calculations      ...  21 
White  Lead  and  Zinc      ...    4 

Dyeing  Woollen  Fabrics  ...  22 

Ozone,  Industrial  Use  of...  12 

Wood  Distillation  29 

Dyers'  Materials     22 

Paint  Manufacture            ...     2 

Wood  Waste  Utilisation...  29 

Dye  stuffs      23 

Paint  Materials      3 

Wood-Dyeing         30 

Electric  Wiring       27 
Electricity  in  Collieries     ...  25 

Paint-material  Testing     ...     4 
Paint  Mixing           28 

Wool-Dyeing           ...         22,23 
Writing  Inks           11 

Enamelling  Metal   18 

Paper-Mill  Chemistry      ...  17 

X  Ray  Work          13 

Enamels         18 

Paper-pulp  Dyeing  17 

Yarn  Testing           20 

Engraving      31 

Petroleum    6 

Zinc  White  Paints            ...    4 

Essential  Oils          7 

PU  B  LISH  ED    BY 


SCOTT,  GREENWOOD  &  SON, 

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LONDON,   E.G. 

Telephone,  Bank  5403.  Telegraphic  Address, "  Printeries,  London  " 


Paints,  Colours  and  Printing 
Inks. 

THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  PIGMENTS.  By  ERNEST  J.  PARRY, 
B.Sc.  (Lond.),  F.I.C.,  F.C.S.,  and  J.  H.  COSTE,  F.I.C.,  F.C.S.  Demy 
8vo.  Five  Illustrations.  285  pp.  Price  10s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free, 
10s.  lOd.  home;  11s.  3d.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Introductory.  Light— White  Light— The  Spectrum— The  Invisible  Spectrum— Normal 
Spectrum — Simple  Nature  of  Pure  Spectral  Colour — The  Recomposition  of  White  Light — 
Primary  and  Complementary  Colours — Coloured  Bodies— Absorption  Spectra — The  Appli= 
cation  of  Pigments.  Uses  of  Pigments :  Artistic,  Decorative,  Protective — Methods  of 
Application  of  Pigments  :  Pastels  and  Crayons,  Water  Colour,  Tempera  Painting,  Fresco, 
Encaustic  Painting,  Oil-colour  Painting,  Keramic  Art,  Enamel,  Stained  and  Painted  Glass, 
Mosaic— Inorganic  Pigments.  White  Lead— Zinc  White— Enamel  White— Whitening- 
Red  Lead — Litharge — Vermilion — Royal  Scarlet — The  Chromium  Greens — Chromates  of  Lead, 
Zinc,  Silver  and  Mercury— Brunswick  Green— The  Ochres— Indian  Red— Venetian  Red- 
Siennas  and  Umbers — Light  Red — Cappagh  Brown — Red  Oxides — Mars  Colours — Terre  Verte 
— Prussian  Brown  —  Cobalt  Colours  —  Coeruleum  —  Smalt — Copper  Pigments — Malachite — 
Bremen  Green  —  Scheele's  Green  —  Emerald  Green  —  Verdigris — Brunswick  Green — Non- 
arsenical  Greens— Copper  Blues— Ultramarine— Carbon  Pigments— Ivory  Black— Lamp  Black 
— Bistre — Naples  Yellow — Arsenic  Sulphides  :  Orpiment,  Realgar — Cadmium  Yellow— 
Vandyck  Brown — Organic  Pigments.  Prussian  Blue — Natural  Lakes — Cochineal — Carmine 
— Crimson  —  Lac  Dye  —  Scarlet  —  Madder  —  Alizarin — Campeachy — Quercitron — Rhamnus — 
Brazil  Wood — Alkanet — Santal  Wood — Archil — Coal-tar  Lakes — Red  Lakes — Alizarin  Com- 
pounds—Orange  and  Yellow  Lakes— Green  and  Blue  Lakes— Indigo— Dragon's  Blood— 
'Gamboge — Sepia — Indian  Yellow,  Puree — Bitumen,  Asphaltum,  Mummy — Index. 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  PAINT.  A  Practical  Handbook 
for  Paint  Manufacturers,  Merchants  and  Painters.  By  J.  CRUICKSHANK 
SMITH,  B.Sc.  Demy  8vo.  200  pp.  Sixty  Illustrations  and  One  Large 
Diagram.  Price  7s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  7s.  lOd.  home  ;  8s.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Preparation  of  Raw  Material— Storing  of  Raw  Material— Testing  and  Valuation  of  Raw 
Material— Paint  Plant  and  Machinery— The  Grinding  of  White  Lead— Grinding  of  White 


Colours  in  Water— Grinding  Colours  in  Turpentine— The  Uses  of  Paint— Testing  and  Matching 
Paints — Economic  Considerations — I  ndex. 

DICTIONARY  OF  CHEMICALS  AND  RAW  PRO- 
DUCTS USED  IN  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF 
PAINTS,  COLOURS,  VARNISHES  AND  ALLIED 
PREPARATIONS.  By  GEORGE  H.  HURST,  F.C.S.  Demy 
8vo.  380  pp.  Price  7s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  8s.  home ;  8s.  6d.  abroad.) 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  LAKE  PIGMENTS  FROM 
ARTIFICIAL  COLOURS.  By  FRANCIS  H.  JENNISON, 
F.I.C.,  F.C.S.  Sixteen  Coloured  Plates,  showing  Specimens  of 
Eighty-nine  Colours,  specially  prepared  from  the  Recipes  given 
in  the  Book.  136  pp.  Demy  8vo.  Price  7s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free, 
7s.  lOd.  home;  8s.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

The  Groups  of  the  Artificial  Colouring  Matters— The  Nature  and  Manipulation  of  Artificial 
Colours— Lake-forming  Bodies  for  Acid  Colours— Lake-forming  Bodies'  Basic  Colours— Lake 
Bases— The  Principles  of  Lake  Formation— Red  Lakes— Orange,  Yellow,  Green,  Blue,  Violet 
and  Black  Lakes— The  Production  of  Insoluble  Azo  Colours  in  the  Form  of  Pigments— The 
General  Properties  of  Lakes  Produced  from  Artificial  Colours— Washing,  Filtering  and  Fin- 
ishing—Matching and  Testing  Lake  Pigments— Index. 


PAINTS,  COLOURS,   ETC.—  continued. 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  MINERAL  AND  LAKE 
PIGMENTS.  Containing  Directions  for  the  Manufacture 
of  all  Artificial,  Artists  and  Painters'  Colours,  Enamel,  Soot  and  Me- 
tallic Pigments.  A  Text-book  for  Manufacturers,  Merchants,  Artists 
and  Painters.  By  Dr.  JOSEF  BERSCH.  Translated  by  A.  C.  WRIGHT, 
M.A.  (Oxon.),  B.Sc.  (Lond.).  Forty-three  Illustrations.  476  pp.,  demy 
8vo.  Price  12s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  13s.  homes  13s.  6d.  abroad.) 

RECIPES  FOR  THE  COLOUR,  PAINT,  VARNISH,  OIL, 
SOAP  AND  DRYSALTERY  TRADES.  Compiled  by 
AN  ANALYTICAL  CHEMIST.  350pp.  Demy  8vo.  Price7s.Gd.net.  (Post 
free,  8s.  home ;  8s.  3d.  abroad.) 

OIL     COLOURS     AND     PRINTERS'    INKS.       By    Louis 
EDGAR  ANDES.     Translated  from  the  German.     215  pp.     Crown  8vo. 
56  Illustrations.    Price  5s.  net.    (Post  free,  5s.  4d.  home  ;  5s.  6d.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

Linseed  Oil — Poppy  Oil — Mechanical  Purification  of  Linseed  Oil — Chemical  Purification  of 
Linseed  Oil — Bleaching  Linseed  Oil — Oxidizing  Agents  for  Boiling  Linseed  Oil — Theory  of 
Oil  Boiling— Manufacture  of  Boiled  Oil— Adulterations  of  Boiled  Oil— Chinese  Drying  Oil  and 
Other  Specialities — Pigments  for  House  and  Artistic  Painting  and  Inks — Pigment  for 
Printers'  Black  Inks — Substitutes  for  Lampblack — Machinery  for  Colour  Grinding  and 
Rubbing — Machines  for  mixing  Pigments  with  the  Vehicle — Paint  Mills — Manufacture  of 
House  Oil  Paints — Ship  Paints  —  Luminous  Paint  —  Artists'  Colours  —  Printers'  Inks: — 
VEHICLES— Printers'  Inks  :— PIGMENTS  and  MANUFACTURE-Index. 

MODERN    PRINTING   INKS.     A   Practical    Handbook  for 

Printing    Ink    Manufacturers    and    Printers.      By  ALFRED    SEYMOUR. 

Demy  8vo.      Six  Illustrations.     90  pages.     Price  5s.  net.     (Post  free, 

5s.  4d.  home  ;  5s.  6d.  abroad.)  [Just  published. 

Contents. 

Introduction. — Division  of  Labour — A  Separate  Industry — Choice  of  Materials — Sk».fj* 
Manipulation — Some  Important  Factors — The  Medium — Ink  and  Colour  Mixing — A  Justifica- 
tion. Linseed  Oil. — Extraction  of  the  Oil  —  Classification  —  Mechanical  Purification  — 
Adulteration — Boiled  Oil — Preparation  of  Boiled  Oil — An  Alternative  Process.  Varnish. — 
A  Vehicle  and  Essential  Component — A  Reference  to  Lithography — Baltic  Oil — Preparation 
of  Varnish — The  Modern  Method — An  Old  Argument — Letterpress  Varnish — A  Cheaper 
Medium — A  Suggestive  Recipe — Fire  Risks — Gradations  of  Varnish.  Dry  Colours. — A 
Recommendation — An  Endless  Variety  of  Materials — Earth  Colours — Mineral  Colours — 
Substrates — Toning  Earth  Colours — Physical  Characteristics — Colouring  Power — Brilliance — 
Purity  of  Tone— Permanence.  Dry  Colours— Blacks,  Whites,  Yellows— Lampblack- 
Process  of  Manufacture — Calcination — Carbon  Black — Acetylene  Black — A  Simple  Test — Lead 
and  Zinc  Whites— White  Earth  Colours— Yellows— Yellow  Ochres— Mineral  Yellows.  Dry 
Colours — Reds,  Browns.  —  Classification  of  Reds  —  Genuine  Vermilions  —  Preparation  — 
Imitation  Vermilions — Umber,  Raw  and  Burnt — Sienna,  Raw  and  Burnt.  Blues,  Greens. — 
Ultramarine  Blue— A  Useful  Tint— Other  Similar  Blues— Cobalt  Blues—  Prussian—  Chinese 
and  Bronze  Blues — A  Test  for  Purity — Greens — Compound  Greens— Mine  ral  Greens.  Lakes. 
— Characteristics — Lake  Derivatives  —  A  Point  of  Importance  —  Red  Lakes  — Madder — 
Cochineal  and  Carmine — Brazil  Wood— Alizarine  a  Coaltar  Derivative — Yellow  Lakes — Blue 
Lakes— Green  Lakes.  The  Grinding  of  Printing:  Inks.— Ink-grinding  Machinery— Ink- 
grinding  Mill — A  Novel  Machine — Hand  Grinding — Treatment  of  Gritty  Colours— A  Question 
of  Proportion— Approximate  Calculation — Soap — Saturation  —  Friction  Heat  —  Consistent 
Grinding.  Ink  and  Colour  Mixing. — A  Necessary  Acquisition— Ink  Mixing  Defined— Mixed 
Green  Inks — Mixed  Brown  Inks — Tints — Ink  Mixing — Lithographic  Inks — C  haracteristics  of 
Yellows — Mixing  Vermilion — Ultramarine  and  Other  Blues — Bronze,  Prussian  and  Chinese 
Blues — Working  Consistency — Reducing  Medium — Letterpress  Inks — Gloss  Inks — Three- 
colour  Inks — Ink-mixing  Machine.  The  Characteristics  of  Some  Pr  nting  Processes. — 
A  Supplementary  Discussion — Letterpress  Inks — Three-colour  Printing — Lithographic  Printing 
Inks — An  Important  Feature — Suggestive  Points — Tinplate  Printing.  Driers. — A  Valuable 
Auxiliary — Energetic  Drying  Inks — The  Theory  of  Drying — Liquid  Driers — Terebene — Paste 
Driers — Letterpress  Driers — Powder  Driers — Turpentine  as  a  Drier.  Bronze  Powders  and 
Bronzing. — A  Brief  Justification — Bronze  Printing  Inks — Bronze  Powders — The  Process  of 
Manufacture — Preparation  of  the  Leaf— Grinding  and  Grading — Bronzing  Mediums — Requisite 
Qualities  — Wax  Varnish.  "Things  Worth  Knowing."— A  Record  of  Notes  and 
Experiences — Index. 

(See  also  Writing  Inks,  p.  n.) 

THREE  HUNDRED  SHADES  AND  HOW  TO  MIX 
THEM.  For  Architects,  Decorators  and  Painters. 

(See  page  28.) 


PAINTS,   COLOURS,   ETC.— continued. 
CASEIN.     By  ROBERT  SCHERER.    Translated  from  the  German 

by  CHAS.    SALTER.      Demy  8vo.     Illustrated.     160  pp.     Price  7s.  6d. 

net.     (Post  free,  7s.  lOd.  home ;  8s.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Casein :  its  Origin,  Preparation  and  Properties.  Various  Methods  of  Preparing 
Casein.  Composition  and  Properties  of  Casein.  Casein  Paints.— "  Marble-Lime  " 
Colour  for  Outside  Work— Casein  Enamel  Paint— Casein  Fa9ade  Paint— Cold-Water  Paint  in 
Powder  Form — History's  Recipe  for  Casein  Paint  and  Varnish — Pure  Casein  Paints  for  Walls, 
etc. — Casein  Paints  for  Woodwork  and  Iron — Casein-Silicate  Paints — Milk  Paints — Casein- 
Silicate  Paint  Recipes — Trojel's  Boiled  Oil  Substitute — CaNomine  Wash — Quick-Drying 
Casein  Paint— Boiled  Oil  Substitute— Ring's  Cold-Water  Paint— Formolactin^Waterproof 
Paint  for  Playing  Cards — Casein  Colour  Lake— Casein-Cement  Paint.  The  Technics  of 
Casein  Painting.  Casein  Adhesives  and  Putties.— Casein  Glue  in  Plates  or  Flakes— 
Jeromm's  Casein  Adhesive — Hall's  Casein  Glue — Waterproof  Glue — Liquid  Casein  Glue — 
Casein  and  Borax  Glue — Solid  Casein  Adhesive— Casein  Solution — Glue  Powder — Casein 
Putties — Washable  Cement  for  Deal  Boards — Wenk's  Casein  Cement — Casein  and  Lime  Cement 
—"Pitch  Barm"— Casein  Stopping— Casein  Cement  for  Stone.  The  Preparation  of 
Plastic  Masses  from  Casein. — Imitation  Ivory — Anti-Radiation  and  Anti-Corrosive  Com- 
position— Dickmann's  Covering  for  Floors  and  Walls — Imitation  Linoleum — Imitation 
Leather — Imitation  Bone — Plastic  Mass  of  Keratin  and  Casein — Insulating  Mass — Plastic 
Casein  Masses — Horny  Casein  Mass — Plastic  Mass  from  Celluloid — Casein  Cellulose  Compo- 
sition— Fireproof  Cellulose  Substitute — Nitrocellulose  and  Casein  Composition — Franquet's 
Celluloid  Substitute— Galalith.  Uses  of  Casein  in  the  Textile  Industry,  for  Finishing 
Colour  Printing,  etc. — Caseogum — "  Glutin  " — Casein  Dressing  for  Linen  and  Cotton 
Fabrics — Printing  Colour  with  Metallic  Lustre — Process  for  Softening,  Sizing  and  Loading — 
Fixing  Casein  and  Other  Albuminoids  on  the  Fibre — Fixing  Insoluble  Colouring.  Matters- 
Waterproofing  and  Softening  Dressing — Casein  for  Mercerising  Crepe — Fixing  Zinc  White  on 
Cotton  with  Formaldehyde — Casein- Magnesia — Casein  Medium  for  Calico  Printing — Loading 
Silk.  Casein  Foodstuffs.— Casein  Food— Synthetic  Milk— Milk  Food— Emulsifiable  Casein 
— Casein  Phosphate  for  Baking — Making  Bread,  Low  in  Carbohydrates,  from  Flour  and  Curd 
— Preparing  Soluble  Casein  Compounds  with  Citrates — Casein  Food.  Sundry  Applications 
of  Casein. 

SIMPLE  METHODS  FOR  TESTING  PAINTERS' 
MATERIALS.  By  A.  C.  WRIGHT,  M.A.  (Oxon.),  B.Sc. 
(Lond.).  Crown  8vo.  160  pp.  Price  5s.  net.  (Post  free,  5s.  3d. 
home  ;  5s.  6d.  abroad.) 

IRON  -  CORROSION,     ANTI  -  FOULING     AND     ANTI- 
CORROSIVE  PAINTS.     Translated  from  the  German  of 
Louis  EDGAR  ANDES.     Sixty-two  Illustrations.     275   pp.     Demy  8vo. 
Price  10s.  6d.  net.     (Post  free,  10s.  lOd.  home;  11s.  3d.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

Iron-rust  and  its  Formation — Protection  from  Rusting  by  Paint — Grounding  the  Iron  with 
Linseed  Oil,  etc.— Testing  Paints— Use  of  Tar  for  Painting  on  Iron— Anti-corrosive  Paints- 
Linseed  Varnish — Chinese  Wood  Oil — Lead  Pigments — Iron  Pigments — Artificial  Iron  Oxides 
— Carbon — Preparation  of  Anti-corrosive  Paints — Results  of  Examination  of  Several  Anti- 
corrosive  Paints — Paints  for  Ship's  Bottoms — Anti-fouling  Compositions — Various  Anti-cor- 
rosive and  Ship's  Paints — Official  Standard  Specifications  for  Ironwork  Paints — Index. 

THE  TESTING  AND  VALUATION  OF  RAW  MATE- 
RIALS USED  IN  PAINT  AND  COLOUR  MANU- 
FACTURE. By  M.  W.  JONES,  RC.S.  A  Book  for  the 
Laboratories  of  Colour  Works.  88  pp.  Crown  8vo.  Price  5s.  net. 
(Post  free,  5s.  3d.  home  and  abroad.) 

THE  MANUFACTURE  AND  COMPARATIVE  MERITS 
OF  WHITE  LEAD  AND  ZINC  WHITE  PAINTS.  By 

G.  PETIT,  Civil  Engineer,  etc.   Translated  from  the  French.    Crown  8vo. 
100  pp.     Price  4s.  net.     (Post  free,  4s.  3d.  home  ;  4s.  4d.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

Chapters  I.,  The  Fundamental  Principles  of  Painting  in  Oil.  II.,  The  Different  Varieties  of 
White  Leads— The  Dutch  Process— Grinding  White  Lead  in  Oil.  III.,  Other  Processes  of 
Manufacturing  White  Lead.  IV.,  White  Lead  Substitutes — Sophistication  of  White  Lead- 
Analysis  of  White  Lead.  V.,  White  Lead  Paints— Their  Merits  and  Defects.  VI.,  Toxi- 
cology of  White  Lead — Hygienic  Measures  in  its  Manufacture  and  Use.  VII.,  Zinc  White — 
Its  Preparation.  IX.,  Zinc  White  Paint  and  Zinc  White  Coatings— Their  Merits  and  Defects 


STUDENTS'  HANDBOOK  OF  PAINTS,  COLOURS,  OILS 
AND  VARNISHES.  By  JOHN  FURNELL.  Crown  8vo.  12 
Illustrations.  96  pp.  Price  2s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  2s.  9d.  home  and  abroad.) 

Varnishes  and  Drying  Oils. 

OIL  CRUSHING,  REFINING  AND  BOILING,  THE 
MANUFACTURE  OF  LINOLEUM,  PRINTING  AND 
LITHOGRAPHIC  INKS,  AND  INDIA-RUBBER 
SUBSTITUTES.  By  JOHN  GEDDES  MC!NTOSH.  Being 
Volume  I.  of  the  Second,  greatly  enlarged,  English  Edition,  in  three 
Volumes,  of  "  The  Manufacture  of  Varnishes  and  Kindred  Industries," 
based  on  and  including  the  work  of  Ach.  Livache.  Demy  8vo.  150  pp. 
29  Illustrations.  Price  7s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  7s.  lOd.  home;  8s. 
abroad.) 

VARNISH  MATERIALS  AND  OIL-VARNISH  MAKING. 

By  J.  G.  MclNTOSH.     Being  Vol.  II.  of  "  The  Manufacture  of  Varnishes 
and    Kindred    Industries".      Demy    8vo.      70  Illustrations.      220   pp. 
Price  10s.  6d.  net.     (Post  free,  10s.  lOd.  home  ;  11s.  3d.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

Chapter  I.,  Introduction.  II.,  Amber  and  Amber  Oil  Varnishes.  III.,  Copal,  etc.  IV., 
Resins— Assorting,  Cleaning  and  Fusing.  V.,  Asphaltum,  Coal-Tar,  Pitch,  Rubber,  etc.  VI., 
Oil- Varnish  Making— General  Instructions.  VII.,  Copal  Oil  Varnish.  VIII.,  Rosin  Oil  Varnish 
—Brunswick  Black— Super  Black  Japan.  IX.,  Testing  Varnish— Utilisation  of  Residues. 

DRYING  OILS,  BOILED  OIL  AND  SOLID  AND 
LIQUID  DRIERS.  By  L.  E.  ANDES.  Expressly  Written 
for  this  Series  of  Special  Technical  Books,  and  the  Publishers  hold 
the  Copyright  for  English  and  Foreign  Editions.  Forty-two  Illustra- 
tions. 342pp.  Demy  8vo.  Pricel2s.6d.net.  (Post  free,  13s.  home  ; 
13s.  3d.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Properties  of  the  Drying  Oils ;  Cause  of  the  Drying  Property ;  Absorption  of  Oxygen  ; 
Behaviour  towards  Metallic  Oxides,  etc. — The  Properties  of  and  Methods  for  obtaining  the 
Drying  Oils — Production  of  the  Drying  Oils  by  Expression  and  Extraction;  Refining  and 
'Bleaching;  Oil  Cakes  and  Meal;  The  Refining  and  Bleaching  of  the  Drying  Oils;  The 
Bleaching  of  Linseed  Oil— The  Manufacture  of  Boiled  Oil;  The  Preparation  of  Drying  Oils 
for  Use  in  the  Grinding  of  Paints  and  Artists'  Colours  and  in  the  Manufacture  of  Varnishes 
by  Heating  over  a  Fire  or  by  Steam,  by  the  Cold  Process,  by  the  Action  of  Air,  and  by  Means 
of  the  Electric  Current ;  The  Driers  used  in  Boiling  Linseed  Oil ;  The  Manufacture  of  Boiled 
Oil  and  the  Apparatus  therefor ;  Livache's  Process  for  Preparing  a  Good  Drying  Oil  and  its 
Practical  Application — The  Preparation  of  Varnishes  for  Letterpress.  Lithographic  and  Copper- 
plate Printing,  for  Oilcloth  and  Waterproof  Fabrics ;  The  Manufacture  of  Thickened  Linseed 
Oil,  Burnt  Oil,  Stand  Oil  by  Fire  Heat,  Superheated  Steam,  and  by  a  Current  of  Air— Behaviour 
of  the  Drying  Oils  and  Boiled  Oils  towards  Atmospheric  Influences,  Water,  Acids  and  Alkalies 
— Boiled  Oil  Substitutes — The  Manufacture  of  Solid  and  Liquid  Driers  from  Linseed  Oil  and 
Rosin;  Linolic  Acid  Compounds  of  the  Driers — The  Adulteration  and  Examination  of  the 
Drying  Oils  and  Boiled  Oil. 

Oils,    Fats,    Waxes,    Greases, 
Petroleum. 

LUBRICATING    OILS,    FATS    AND    GREASES:     Their 

Origin,  Preparation,  Properties,  Uses  and  Analyses.  A  Handbook  for 
Oil  Manufacturers,  Refiners  and  Merchants,  and  the  Oil  and  Fat 
Industry  in  General.  By  GEORGE  H.  HURST,  F.C.S.  Second  Revised 
and  Enlarged  Edition.  Sixty-five  Illustrations.  317  pp.  Demy  8va 
Price  10s.  6d.  net.  (Post  tree,  11s.  home;  11s.  3d.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Introductory— Hydrocarbon  Oils— Scotch  Shale  Oils— Petroleum— Vegetable  and 
Animal  Oils— Testing  and  Adulteration  of  Oils— Lubricating  Greases— Lubrication  - 
Appendices— Index. 


TECHNOLOGY  OF  PETROLEUM  :  Oil  Fields  of  the 
World — Their  History,  Geography  and  Geology — Annual  Production 
and  Development — Oil-well  Drilling — Transport.  By  HENRY  NEU- 
BERGER  and  HENRY  NOALHAT.  Translated  from  the  French  by  J.  G. 
MclNTOSH.  550  pp.  153  Illustrations.  26  Plates.  Super  Royal  8vo. 
Price  21s.  net.  (Post  free,  21s.  9d.  home ;  23s.  6d.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Study  of  the  Petroliferous  Strata, 

Excavations— Hand  Excavation  or  Hand  Digging  of  Oil  Wells. 

Methods  of  Boring:. 

Accidents — Boring  Accidents — Methods  of  preventing  them — Methods  of  remedying  them 
—Explosives  and  the  use  of  the  "Torpedo"  Levigation— Storing  and  Transport  of  Petroleum 
— General  Advice — Prospecting,  Management  and  carrying  on  of  Petroleum  Boring  Operations. 

General  Data — Customary  Formulas — Memento.  Practical  Part.  General  Data 
bearing  on  Petroleum— Glossary  of  Technical  Terms  used  in  the  Petroleum  Industry— Copious 
Index. 

MINERAL  WAXES  :  Their  Preparation  and  Uses.  By 
RUDOLF  GREGORIUS.  Translated  from  the  German.  Crown  8vo.  250 
pp.  32  Illustrations.  Price  6s.  net.  (Post  free,  6s.  4d.  home ; 
6s.  6d.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Ozokerite— Ceresine— Paraffin— Refining  Paraffin— Mineral  Wax— Appliances  for 
Extracting:,  Distilling  and  Refining-  Ozokerite— Uses  of  Ceresine,  Paraffin  and 
Mineral  Waxes— Paint  and  Varnish  Removers— Leather  and  Piston=Rod  Greases- 
Recipes  for  Silk,  Cotton  and  Linen  Dressings— Candles. 

THE    PRACTICAL    COMPOUNDING    OF   OILS,   TAL- 
LOW   AND    GREASE    FOR    LUBRICATION,    ETC. 
By  AN  EXPERT  OIL  REFINER.     Second  Edition.     100  pp.      Demy  8vo. 
Price  7s.  6d.  net.     (Post  free,  7s.  lOd.  home  ;  8s.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

Introductory  Remarks  on  the  General  Nomenclature  of  Oils,  Tallow  and  Greases 
suitable  for  Lubrication  —  Hydrocarbon  Oils  —  Animal  and  Fish  Oils  —  Compound 
Oils— Vegetable  Oils— Lamp  Oils— Engine  Tallow,  Solidified  Oils  and  Petroleum 
Jelly  — Machinery  Greases:  Loco  and  Anti -friction— Clarifying  and  Utilisation 
of  Waste  Fats,  Oils,  Tank  Bottoms,  Orainings  of  Barrels  and  Drums,  Pickings 
Up,  Dregs,  etc.— The  Fixing  and  Cleaning  of  Oil  Tanks,  etc.— Appendix  and 
General  Information. 

ANIMAL  FATS  AND  OILS:  Their  Practical  Production, 
Purification  and  Uses  for  a  great  Variety  of  Purposes.  Their  Pro- 
perties, Falsification  and  Examination.  Translated  from  the  German 
of  Louis  EDGAR  ANDES.  Sixty-two  Illustrations.  240  pp.  Second 
Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.  Demy  8vo.  Price  10s.  6d.  net. 
(Post  free,  10s.  lOd.  home;  11s.  3d.  abroad.) 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  LUBRICANTS,  SHOE 
POLISHES  AND  LEATHER  DRESSINGS.  By 

RICHARD  BRUNNER.  Translated  from  the  Sixth  German  Edition  by 
CHAS.  SALTER.  10  Illustrations.  Crown  8vo.  170  pp.  Price  7s.  6d. 
net.  (Post  free,  7s.  lOd.  home ;  8s.  abroad.) 

THE  OIL  MERCHANTS'  MANUAL  AND  OIL  TRADE 
READY  RECKONER.  Compiled  by  FRANK  F.  SHERRIFF. 
Second  Edition  Revised  and  Enlarged.  Demy  8vo.  214  pp.  1904. 
With  Two  Sheets  of  Tables.  Price  7s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  7s.  lOd. 
home  ;  8s.  3d.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Trade  Terms  and  Customs— Tables  to  Ascertain  Value  of  Oil  sold  per  cwt.  or  ton— Specific 

iffine 


Gravity  Tables— Percentage  Tare  Tables — Petroleum  Tables — Paraffine  and  Benzoline  Calcu- 
lations— Customary  Drafts — Tables  " 
of  Circular  Tanks,  Tables,  etc.  etc. 


lations— Customary  Drafts— Tables  for  Calculating  Allowance  for  Dirt,  Water,  etc.— Capacity 
"  s,  Ta   " 


VEGETABLE  PATS  AND  OILS:  Their  Practical  Prepara- 
tion, Purification  and  Employment  for  Various  Purposes,  their  Proper- 
ties, Adulteration  and  Examination.  Translated  from  the  German  of 
Louis  EDGAR  ANDES.  Ninety-four  Illustrations.  340  pp.  Second 
Edition.  Demy  8vo.  Price  10s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  11s.  home; 
11s.  6d.  abroad.) 

EDIBLE  FATS  AND  OILS :  Their  Composition,  Manufacture 
and  Analysis.  By  W.  H.  SIMMONS,  B.Sc.  (Lond.),  F.C.S. 

[In  preparation. 

The  Contents  will  include  the  Constitution  of  Oils  and  Fats  ;  Raw  Materials  ;  Bleaching, 
Deodorising  and  Refining ;  Butter ;  Lard ;  Margarine ;  Salad  Oils ;  Chocolate  Cream ; 
Analysis  of  Raw  Materials  ;  Statistics. 

Essential  Oils  and  Perfumes* 

THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  ESSENTIAL  OILS  AND  ARTI- 
FICIAL PERFUMES.  By  ERNEST  J.  PARRY,  B.Sc. 
(Lond.),  F.I.C.,  F.C.S.  Second  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.  552  pp. 
20  Illustrations.  Demy  8vo.  Price  12s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  13s.  home  ; 
13s.  6d.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Chapter  I.  The  General  Properties  of  Essential  Oils.  II.  Compounds  occurring  in 
Essential  Oils  :  (I.)  The  Terpenes—  Sesquiterpenes— Olefinic  Terpenes  and  Sesquiterpenes— 
Pinene— (II.)  The  Camphor  Series— (III.)  The  Geraniol  and  Citronellol  Group— The  Geraniol 
and  Citronellol  Series — (IV.)  Benzene  Compounds  :  Cymene — Phenols  and  their  Derivatives 
— Phenols  with  Nine  Carbon  Atoms — Phenols  with  Ten  Carbon  Atoms — Alcohols — Aldehydes 
— Ketones— Acids— (V.)  Aliphatic  Compounds  :  Alcohols— Acids— Aldehydes— Sulphur  Com- 
pounds— Other  Bodies.  III.  The  Preparation  of  Essential  Oils  :  Expression — Distillation 
—Extraction.  IV.  The  Analysis  of  Essential  Oils  :  Specific  Gravity— Optical  Metnods : 
(1)  Refraction  (2)  Polarimetry,  Melting  and  Solidifying  Points— Boiling  Point  and  Distillation 
— Quantitative  Estimations  of  Constituents — Aldehydes,  Ketones  and  Oils  on  which  a  Direct 
Determination  can  be  made.  V.  Systematic  Study  of  the  Essential  Oils.  VI 
Chemistry  of  Artificial  Perfumes.  Appendix  I.  Table  on  Constants  of  the  more 
important  Essential  Oils.  Appendix  II.  Table  of  Pharmacopoeial  Standards.  Index. 


Soaps. 


SOAPS.  A  Practical  Manual  of  the  Manufacture  of  Domestic, 
Toilet  and  other  Soaps.  By  GEORGE  H.  HURST,  F.C.S.  2nd  edition. 
390  pp.  66  Illustrations.  Price  12s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  13s.  home ; 
13s.  6d.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Introductory— Soap=maker's  Alkalies— Soap  Fats  and  Oils— Perfumes— Water  as 
a  Soap  Material— Soap  Machinery— Technology  of  Soap- making— Glycerine  in  Soap 
Lyes— Laying  out  a  Soap  Factory— Soap  Analysis— Appendices. 

TEXTILE  SOAPS  AND  OILS.  Handbook  on  the  Prepara- 
tion, Properties  and  Analysis  of  the  Soaps  and  Oils  used  in  Textile 
Manufacturing,  Dyeing  and  Printing.  By  GEORGE  H.  HURST,  F.C.S. 
Crown  8vo.  195  pp.  1904.  Price  5s.  net.  (Post  free,  5s.  4d.  home  ; 
5s.  6d.  abroad.) 

THE    HANDBOOK    OF    SOAP    MANUFACTURE.      By 

WM.  H.  SIMMONS,  B.Sc.  (Lond.),  F.C.S.  and  H.  A.  APPLETON.  Demy 
8vo.  160  pp.  27  Illustrations.  Price  8s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free, 
8s.  lOd.  home ;  9s.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Definition  of  Soap.— Properties— Hydrolysis— Detergent  Action.  Constitution  of  Oils 
and  Fats,  and  their  Saponification.— Researches  of  Chevreul  and  Berthelot— Mixed 
Glycerides— Modern  Theories  of  Saponification— Hydrolysis  accelerated  by  (1)  Heat  or 
Electricity.  (2)  Ferments,  Castor-seed  Ferment.  Steapsin  Emulsin  and  (3)  Chemical 


8 
Contents  of  "Handbook  of  Soap  Manufacture"— continued. 

Reagents,  Sulphuric  Acid,  Twitchell's  Reagent,  Hydrochloric  Acid,  Lime,  Magnesia,  Zinc 
Oxide,  Soda  and  Potash.  Raw  Materials  used  in  Soap-making.— Fats  and  Oils— Waste 
Fats — Fatty  Acids — Less-known  Oils  and  Fats  of  Limited  Use — Various  New  Fats  and  Oils 
Suggested  for  Soap-making — Rosin — Alkali  (Caustic  and  Carbonated) — Water— Salt  Soap- 
stock.  Bleaching  and  Treatment  of  Raw  Materials  Intended  for  Soap-making.— 
Palm  Oil— Cottonseed  Oil — Cottonseed  "  Foots" — Vegetable  Oils — Animal  Fats — Bone  Fat — 
Rosin.  Soap- making.— Classification  of  Soaps— Direct  combination  of  Fatty  Acids  with 
Alkali — Cold  Process  Soaps — Saponification  under  Increased  or  Diminished  Pressure — Soft 
Soap— Marine  Soap — Hydrated  Soaps,  Smooth  and  Marbled — Pasting  or  Saponification — 
Graining  Out — Boiling  on  Strength — Fitting — Curd  Soaps — Curd  Mottled — Blue  and  Grey 
Mottled  Soaps — Milling  Base — Yellow  Household  Soaps — Resting  of  Pans  and  Settling  of 
Soap — Utilisation  of  Nigres — Transparent  Soaps— Saponifying  Mineral  Oil — Electrical  Pro- 
duction of  Soap.  Treatment  of  Settled  Soap. — Cleansing — Crutching — Liquoring  of  Soaps 
— Filling— Neutralising,  Colouring  and  Perfuming — Disinfectant  Soaps — Framing — Slabbing 
— Barring — Open  and  Close  Piling — Drying — Stamping — Cooling.  Toilet,  Textile  and 
Miscellaneous  Soaps.— Toilet  Soaps— Cold  Process  Soaps— Settled  Boiled  Soaps— Remelted 
Soaps — Milled  Soaps — Drying,  Milling  and  Incorporating  Colour,  Perfumes,  or  Medicaments 
— Perfumes — Colouring  Matter — Neutralising  and  Super-fatting  Material — Compressing — 
Cutting — Textile  Soaps — Soaps  for  Woollen,  Cotton  and  Silk  Industries — Patent  Textile 
Soaps — Stamping — Medicated  Soaps — Ether  Soap — Floating  Soaps — Shaving  Soaps — 
Miscellaneous  Soaps.  Soap  Perfumes. — Essential  Oils- — Source  and  Preparation — Properties 
—Artificial  and  Synthetic  Perfumes.  Glycerine  Manufacture  and  Purification.— Treat- 
ment of  Lyes — Evaporation — Crude  Glycerine — Distillation — Distilled  and  Dynamite 
Glycerine — Chemically  Pure  Glycerine — Animal  Charcoal  for  Decolorisation — Glycerine 
resultant  from  other  methods  of  Saponification— Yield  of  Glycerine  from  Fats  and  Oils. 
Analysis  of  Raw  Materials,  Soap  and  Glycerine.— Fats  and  Oils— Alkalies  and  Alkali 
Salts— Essential  Oils— Soap— Lyes— Crude  Glycerine.  Statistics  of  the  Soap  Industry. 
Appendix  A.— Comparison  of  Degrees  Twaddell,  Beaume  and  Actual  Densities. 
Appendix  B.— Comparison  of  Different  Thermometric  Scales.  Appendix  C.— Table  of 
the  Specific  Gravities  of  Solutions  of  Caustic  Soda.  Appendix  D.— Table  of  Strength 
of  Caustic  Potash  Solutions  at  60°  F.  Index. 

Cosmetical   Preparations. 

COSMETICS  :  MANUFACTURE,  EMPLOYMENT 
AND  TESTING  OF  ALL  COSMETIC  MATERIALS 
AND  COSMETIC  SPECIALITIES.  Translated 
from  the  German  of  Dr.  THEODOR  KOLLER.  Crown  8vo.  262  pp. 
Price  5s.  net.  (Post  free,  5s.  4d.  home  ;  5s.  6d.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

Purposes  and  Uses  of,  and  Ingredients  used  in  the  Preparation  of  Cosmetics — Preparation  of 
Perfumes  by  Pressure,  Distillation,  Maceration,  Absorption  or  Enfleurage,  and  Extraction 
Methods — Chemical  and  Animal  Products  used  in  the  Preparation  of  Cosmetics — Oils  and  Fats 
used  in  the  Preparation  of  Cosmetics — General  Cosmetic  Preparations — Mouth  Washes  and 
Tooth  Pastes  —  Hair  Dyes,  Hair  Restorers  and  Depilatories — Cosmetic  Adjuncts  and 
Specialities — Colouring  Cosmetic  Preparations — Antiseptic  Washes  and  Soaps — Toilet  and 
Hygienic  Soaps — Secret  Preparations  for  Skin,  Complexion,  Teeth,  Mouth,  etc. — Testing  and 
Examining  the  Materials  Employed  in  the  Manufacture  of  Cosmetics — Index. 

Glue,  Bone  Products  and 
Manures. 

GLUE  AND    GLUE   TESTING.     By  SAMUEL  RIDEAL,  D.Sc. 
(Lond.),    F.I.C.     Fourteen    Engravings.      144  pp.      Demy    8vo.    Price 
10s.  6d.  net.     (Post  free,  10s.  lOd.  home  ;  11s.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

Constitution  and  Properties  :  Definitions  and  Sources,  Gelatine,  Chondrin  and  Allied 
Bodies,  Physical  and  Chemical  Properties,  Classification,  Grades  and  Commercial  Varieties 
— Raw  Materials  and  Manufacture  :  Glue  Stock,  Lining,  Extraction,  Washing  and  Clari- 
fying, Filter  Presses,  Water  Supply,  Use  of  Alkalies,  Action  of  Bacteria  and  of  Antiseptics, 
Various  Processes,  Cleansing,  Forming,  Drying,  Crushing,  etc.,  Secondary  Products — Uses 
of  Glue  :  Selection  and  Preparation  for  Use,  Carpentry,  Veneering,  Paper-Making,  Book- 
binding, Printing  Rollers,  Hectographs,  Match  Manufacture,  Sandpaper,  etc.,  Substitutes  for 
other  Materials,  Artificial  Leather  and  Caoutchouc — Gelatine  :  General  Characters,  Liquid 
Gelatine,  Photographic  Uses,  Size,  Tanno-,  Chrome  and  Formo-Gelatine,  Artificial  Silk, 
Cements,  Pneumatic  Tyres,  Culinary,  Meat  Extracts,  Isinglass,  Medicinal  and  other  Uses, 
Bacteriology — Glue  Testing  :  Review  of  Processes,  Chemical  Examination,  Adulteration,. 
Physical  Tests,  Valuation  of  Raw  Materials— Commercial  Aspects. 


9 

BONE  PRODUCTS  AND  MANURES :  An  Account  of  the 
most  recent  Improvements  in  the  Manufacture  of  Fat,  Glue,  Animal 
Charcoal,  Size,  Gelatine  and  Manures.  By  THOMAS  LAMBERT,  Techni- 
cal and  Consulting  Chemist.  Illustrated  by  Twenty-one  Plans  and 
Diagrams.  162  pp.  Demy  8vo.  Price  7s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  7s.  lOd. 
home ;  8s.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Chemical  Composition  of  Bones — Arrangement  of  Factory — Properties  of  Glue — Glutin 
and  Chondrin — Skin  Glue — Liming  of  Skins — Washing — Boiling  of  Skins — Clarification  of  Glue 
Liquors— Glue-Boiling  and  Clarifying-House— Specification  of  a  Glue — Size — Uses  and  Pre 
paration  and  Composition  of  Size — Concentrated  Size — Properties  of  Gelatine — Preparation  of 
Skin  Gelatine — Drying — Bone  Gelatine— Selecting  Bones — Crushing— Dissolving — Bleaching 
— Boiling — Properties  of  Glutin  and  Chondrin — Testing  of  Glues  and  Gelatines — The  Uses  of 
Glue,  Gelatine  and  Size  in  Various  Trades — Soluble  and  Liquid  Glues — Steam  and  Waterproof 
Glues — Manures — Importation  of  Food  Stuffs — Sjils — Germination — Plant  Life — Natural 
Manures— Water  and  Nitrogen  in  Farmyard  Manure — Full  Analysis  of  Farmyard  Manure 
— Action  on  Crops — Water-Closet  System — Sewage  Manure — Green  Manures — Artificial 
Manures — Mineral  Manures — Ni  rogenous  Matters — Shoddy — Hoofs  and  Horns — Leather 
Waste — Dried  Meat — Dried  Blood — Superphosphates — Composition— Manufacture — Common 
Raw  Bones— Degreased  Bones— Crude  Fat—  Refined  Fat— Degelatimsed  Bones— Animal 
Charcoal — Bone  Superphosphates — Guanos — Dried  Animal  Products — Potash  Compounds — 
Sulphate  of  Ammonia — Extraction  in  Zacuo — French  and  British  Gelatines  compared — Index. 

Chemicals,   Waste  Products  and 
Agricultural  Chemistry. 

REISSUE      OF      CHEMICAL      ESSAYS      OF      C.      W. 
SCHEELE.     First   Published  in   English   in    1786.     Trans- 
lated from  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Stockholm,  with  Additions.    300 
pp.    Demy  8vo.    Price  5s.  net.     (Post  free  5s.  6d.  home  ;  5s.  9d.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

Memoir :  C.  W.  Scheele  and  his  work  (written  for  this  edition  by  J.  G.  Mclntosh) — On 
Fluor  Mineral  and  its  Acid— On  Fluor  Mineral— Chemical  Investigation  of  Fluor  Acid, 
with  a  View  to  the  Earth  which  it  Yields,  by  Mr.  Wiegler — Additional  Information 
Concerning  Fluor  Minerals — On  Manganese,  Magnesium,  or  Magnesia  Vitrariorum — On 
Arsenic  and  its  Acid — Remarks  upon  Salts  of  Benzoin — On  Silex,  Clay  and  Alum — Analysis 
of  the  Calculus  Vesical — Method  of  Preparing  Mercurius  Dulcis  Via  Humida— Cheaper  and 
more  Convenient  Method  of  Preparing  Pulvis  Algarothi — Experiments  upon  Molybdaena 
— Experiments  on  Plumbago — Method  of  Preparing  a  New  Green  Colour— Of  the  De- 
composition of  Neutral  Salts  by  Unslaked  Lime  and  Iron — On  the  Quantity  of  Pure  Air  which 
is  Daily  Present  in  our  Atmosphere — On  Milk  and  its  Acid — On  the  Acid  of  Saccharum  Lactis 
— On  the  Constituent  Parts  of  Lapis  Ponderosus  or  Tungsten — Experiments  and  Observations 
on  Ether — Index. 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  ALUM  AND  THE  SUL- 
PHATES AND  OTHER  SALTS  OF  ALUMINA  AND 
IRON.  Their  Uses  and  Applications  as  Mordants  in  Dyeing 
and  Calico  Printing,  and  their  other  Applications  in  the  Arts  Manufac- 
tures, Sanitary  Engineering,  Agriculture  and  Horticulture.  Translated 
from  the  French  of  LUCIEN  GESCHWIND.  195  Illustrations.  400  pp. 
Royal  8vo.  Price  12s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  13s.  home;  13s.  6d.  abroad.) 

AMMONIA  AND  ITS  COMPOUNDS  :  Their  Manufacture 
and  Uses.  By  CAMILLE  VINCENT,  Professor  at  the  Central  School  of 
Arts  and  Manufactures,  Paris.  Translated  from  the  French  by  M.  J. 
SALTER.  Royal  8vo.  114  pp.  Thirty-two  Illustrations.  Price  5s.  net. 
(Post  free,  5s.  4d.  home  ;  5s.  6d.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

General  Considerations  :  Various  Sources  of  Ammoniacal  Products ;  Human  Urine 
as  a  Source  of  Ammonia— Extraction  of  Ammoniacal  Products  from  Sewage- 
Extraction  of  Ammonia  from  Gas  Liquor— Manufacture  of  Ammoniacal  Com- 
pounds from  Bones,  Nitrogenous  Waste,  Beetroot  Wash  and  Peat— Manufacture  of 
Caustic  Ammonia,  and  Ammonium  Chloride,  Phosphate  and  Carbonate— Recovery 
of  Ammonia  from  the  Ammonia-Soda  Mother  Liquors— Index. 


10 

INDUSTRIAL  ALCOHOL.  A  Practical  Manual  on  the 
Production  and  Use  of  Alcohol  for  Industrial  Purposes  and  for  Use  as 
a  Heating  Agent,  as  an  Illuminant  and  as  a  Source  of  Motive  Power. 
By  J.  G.  M'lNTOSH,  Lecturer  on  Manufacture  and  Applications  of 
Industrial  Alcohol  at  The  Polytechnic,  Regent  Street,  London. 
Demy  8vo.  1907.  250  pp.  With  75  Illustrations  and  25  Tables. 
Price  7s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  7s.  9d.  home  ;  8s.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

Alcohol  and  its  Properties.— Ethylic  Alcohol— Absolute  Alcohol— Adulterations- 
Properties  of  Alcohol — Fractional  Distillation — Destructive  Distillation — Products  of  Com- 
bustion— Alcoholometry — Proof  Spirit — Analysis  of  Alcohol — Table  showing  Correspondence 
between  the  Specific  Gravity  and  Per  Cents,  of  Alcohol  over  and  under  Proof — Other 
Alcohol  Tables.  Continuous  Aseptic  and  Antiseptic  Fermentation  and  Sterilisation 
in  Industrial  Alcohol  Manufacture.  The  Manufacture  of  Industrial  Alcohol  from 
Beets. — Beet  Slicing  Machines — Extraction  of  Beet  Juice  by  Maceration,  by  Diffusion — 
Fermentation  in  Beet  Distilleries — Plans  of  Modern  Beet  Distillery.  The  Manufacture  of 
Industrial  Alcohol  from  Grain.— Plan  of  Modern  Grain  Distillery.  The  Manufacture  of 
Industrial  Alcohol  from  Potatoes.  The  Manufacture  of  Industrial  Alcohol  from 
Surplus  Stocks  of  Wine,  Spoilt  Wine,  Wine  Marcs,  and  from  Fruit  in  General.  The  Manu- 
facture of  Alcohol  from  the  Sugar  Cane  and  Sugar  Cane  Molasses — Plans.  Plant,  etc., 
for  the  Distillation  and  Rectification  of  Industrial  Alcohol.— The  Caffey  and  other 
"  Patent  "  Stills — Intermittent  versus  Continuous  Rectification — Continuous  Distillation — 
Rectification  of  Spent  Wash.  The  Manufacture  and  Uses  of  Various  Alcohol 
Derivatives,  Ether,  Haloid  Ethers,  Compound  Ethers,  Chloroform — Methyl  and  Amyl 
Alcohols  and  their  Ethereal  Salts,  Acetone— Barbet's  Ether,  Methyl  Alcohol  and  Acetone 
Rectifying  Stills.  The  Uses  of  Alcohol  in  Manufactures,  etc. — List  of  Industries  in 
which  Alcohol  is  used,  with  Key  to  Function  of  Alcohol  in  each  Industry.  The  Uses  of 
Alcohol  for  Lighting:,  Heating,  and  Motive  Power. 

ANALYSIS  OF  RESINS  AND  BALSAMS.  Translated 
from  the  German  of  Dr.  KARL  DIETERICH.  Demy  8vo.  340  pp. 
Price  7s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  7s.  lOd.  home  ;  8s.  3d.  abroad.) 

MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY.   By 

HERBERT  INGLE,  F.I.C.,  Late  Lecturer  on  Agricultural  Chemistry,  the 
Leeds  University ;  Lecturer  in  the  Victoria  University.  Second 
Edition,  with  additional  matter  relating  to  Tropical  Agriculture,  etc. 
438pp.  11  Illustrations.  Demy  8vo.  Price  7s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free, 
8s.  home  ;  8s.  6d.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Properties  and  Characteristics  of  the  Elements.— Hydrogen— Oxygen— Heat  of  Com- 
bustion— Nitrogen  — Carbon  —  Sulphur  —  Phosphorous —  Potassium  —  Sodium  —  Fluorine  — 
Magnesium— Iron— Chlorine— Aluminium— Silicon— Borax.  The  Atmosphere.— Nitrogen- 
Oxygen — Argon — Carbon  Dioxide — Ammonia — Nitric  Acid — Ozone — Solid  Matter.  The  Soil. 
— Classification  of  Rocks — Quartz — Felspar — Mica — Clay — Sandstones — Shales — Limestones 
—Calcareous  Rocks— Transported  Soils.  Formation  of  Soils.— By  Water,  Air,  Earth 
Worms,  Vegetation  and  Bacteria — Sand— Clay — Limestone — Humus — Classification  of  Soils. 
Reactions  in  Soijs.— Diffusion— Gravitation—  Nitrification— Soil  Gases— Water  of  the  Soil- 
Biology  of  the  Soil — Electrolytic  Dissociation  Theory — Mass  Action.  Analysis  of  Soils. — 
Sampling — Mechanical  and  Chemical  Analyses — Determination  of  Silica,  Alumina,  Ferric 
Oxide,  Total  Potash  and  Phosphoric  Acid,  Lime,  Magnesia,  Calcium  Carbonate,  Sulphuric 
Acid,  Nitrates  and  Nitrites.  Natural  Manures. — Improvement  of  Soils— Farmyard  Manure 
— Composition  of  Animal  Excreta — Use  of  Litter,  Straw,  Peat,  Bracken,  Leaves,  Sawdust, 
Tanners'  Refuse— Fermentation  and  Preservation  of  Farmyard  Manure.  Other  Organic 
Manures. — Guano — Poultry  and  Fish  Manures— Seaweed — Dried  Blood— Bones — Meat 
Guano — Hair — Soot — Oil-cakes.  Nitrogenous  Manures. — Sodium  Nitrate — Ammonium 
Sulphate — Phosphatic  Manures — Tricalcum  Phosphate — Coprolites — Phosphorites — Mineral 
Superphosphates — Basic  Slag — Potash  Manures — Composition  of  Principal  Potash  Salts — 
Various  Manures — Common  Salt — Gypsum — Limestone — Ferrous  Sulphate — Gas  Lime — 
Copper  Sulphate.  Analysis  of  Manures. — Constituents — Determination  of  Nitrogen — 
Phosphoric  Acid— Potassium— Valuation  of  Manures  from  Analysis.  Constituents  of 
Plants. — Carbohydrates — Sugars — Starch — Dextrin — Glycogen— Inulin — Gums — Cellulose  — 
Glucose — Fructose — Cane  Sugar—  Meletrose— Arabinose — Xylose — Lignose — Pectose —  Gly- 
cerol— Waxes— Organic  Acids  and  their  Salts.  Essential  Oils  and  Resins.— Terpenes— 
Oxygenated  Essential  Oils — Essential  Oils  containing  Sulphur — Resins.  Nitrogenous  Sub- 
stances.—Albuminoids— Amides— Alkaloids— Chlorophyll.  The  Plant.  —  Germination  — 
Roots— Osmotic  Pressure — Leaves — Assimilation — Flowers.  Crops. — Cereals — Root  Crops 
— Fodder  Crops — Hay — Ventilating  Stacks — Silage — Composition  of  Crops.  The  Animal.— 
Blood— Bones— Fatty  Tissue— Muscle— Digestion— Bile— Urine.  Foods  and  Feeding.— 
Composition  of  Oil-cake — Bye-Products  as  Foods — Digestibility  of  Foods — Calorific  Value  of 
Foods— Feeding  Standards— Manurial  Value  of  Foods.  Milk  and  Milk  Products.— Fat- 
Albuminoids — Milk  Sugar — Chemical  Composition  of  Cow's  Milk — Influence  of  Food,  Season 
and  Milking  Time— Milk  Products— Cream— Skimmed  Milk— Butter— Butter-milk— Cheese- 
Condensed  Milk— Koumiss-  -Milk  Preservation.  Analysis  of  Milk  and  Milk  Products.— 


11 

Milk — Amount  of  Fat — Determination  of  Total  Solids,  Specific  Gravity,  Proteids,  Milk  Sugar 
— Adulteration  of  Milk — Detection  of  Preservatives — Butter — Butter  Colouring — Cheese — 
Milk  Standards.  Various  Products  used  in  Agriculture.— Arsenious  Oxide— Bleaching 
Powder — Copper  Salts — Disinfectants — Fungicides — Iron  Sulphate — Mercuric  Chloride — 
Plant  Poisons.  Appendix. — Atomic  Weights — Hydrometer  Scales — Metric  System — 
Solubilities.  Tropical  Agriculture,  etc.— Composition  of  Rain  Water— Irrigation  Water- 
Earth  Worms — Motion  of  Water  in  Soil — Analysis  of  Soils — Green  Manuring — Kraal  Manure 
— Bats'  Guano — Artificial  Manures — The  Plant — Rice — Maize— Millet — Cotton— Flax — Castor 
Seeds— Sunflower — Composition  of  Various  South  African  Grown  Crops — Ash  Constituents  of 
Foods — Variations  in  the  Composition  of  Milk — Butter — Fat— Bordeaux  Mixture — Insecticides. 

THE  UTILISATION  OF  WASTE  PRODUCTS.  A  Treatise 
on  the  Rational  Utilisation,  Recovery  and  Treatment  of  Waste  Pro- 
ducts of  all  kinds.  By  Dr.  THEODOR  ROLLER.  Translated  from  the 
Second  Revised  German  Edition.  Twenty-two  Illustrations.  Demy 
8vo.  280  pp.  Price  7s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  7s.  lOd.  home  ;  8s.  3d. 
abroad.) 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  CHEMICAL  MANURES. 

From  the  French  of  J.  FRITSCH.     With  70  Illustrations  and  4  Plates. 

[In  preparation. 

The  Contents  will  include  Superphosphates,  Guanos,  Nitrate  of  Soda,  Dried  Blood  Sulphate 
of  Ammonia,  Potashes,  etc. 

Writing  Inks  and  Sealing  Waxes. 

INK  MANUFACTURE  :  Including  Writing,  Copying,  Litho- 
graphic, Marking,  Stamping,  and  Laundry  Inks.  By  SIGMUND  LEHNER. 
Three  Illustrations.  Crown  8vo.  162  pp.  Translated  from  the  German 
of  the  Fifth  Edition.  Price  5s.  net.  (Post  free,  5s.  3d.  home ;  5s.  6d. 
abroad.) 

SEALING-WAXES,    WAFERS    AND    OTHER     ADHES- 
IVES    FOR    THE    HOUSEHOLD,    OFFICE,    WORK- 
SHOP AND  FACTORY.      By  H.  C.  STANDAGE.      Crown 
8vo.     96  pp.     Price  5s.  net.     (Post  free,  5s.  3d.  home ;  5s.  4d.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

Materials  Used  for  Making:  Sealing-- Waxes— The  Manufacture  of  Sealing- Waxes- 
Wafers— Notes  on  the  Nature  of  the  Materials  Used  in  Making  Adhesive  Compounds— Cements 
for  Use  in  the  Household — Office  Gums,  Pastes  and  Mucilages — Adhesive  Compounds  for 
Factory  and  Workshop  Use. 

Lead  Ores  and  Compounds. 

LEAD  AND  ITS  COMPOUNDS.  By  THOS.  LAMBERT, 
Technical  and  Consulting  Chemist.  Demy  8vo.  226  pp.  Forty  Illus- 
trations. Price  7s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  7s.  lOd.  home ;  8s.  3d.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

History — Ores  of  Lead — Geographical  Distribution  of  the  Lead  Industry — Chemical  and 
Physical  Properties  of  Lead— Alloys  of  Lead— Compounds  of  Lead— Dressing  of  Lead  Ores 
— Smelting  of  Lead  Ores — Smelting  in  the  Scotch  or  American  Ore-hearth — Smelting  in  the 
Shaft  or  Blast  Furnace— Condensation  of  Lead  Fume— Desilverisation,  or  the  Separation 
of  Silver  from  Argentiferous  Lead— Cupellation— The  Manufacture  of  Lead  Pipes  and 
Sheets — Protoxide  of  Lead— Litharge  and  Massicot — Red  Lead  or  Minium — Lead  Poisoning 
— Lead  Substitutes — Zinc  and  its  Compounds — Pumice  Stone — Drying  Oils  and  Siccatives 
— Oil  of  Turpentine  Resin — Classification  of  Mineral  Pigments — Analysis  of  Raw  and  Finished 
Products— Tables— Index. 

NOTES  ON  LEAD  ORES  :  Their  Distribution  and  Properties. 
By  JAS.  FAIRIE,  F.G.S.  Crown  8vo.  64  pages.  Price  Is.  net. 
(Post  free,  Is.  3d.  home ;  Is.  4d.  abroad.) 

(White  Lead  and  Zinc  White  Paints,  see  p.  4.) 


12 

Industrial  Hygiene. 

THE  RISKS  AND  DANGERS  TO  HEALTH  OP  VARI- 
OUS OCCUPATIONS  AND  THEIR  PREVENTION. 

By  LEONARD  A.   PARRY,  M.D.,  B.Sc.  (Lond.).      196  pp.      Demy  8vo. 
Price  7s.  6d.  net.     (Post  free,  7s.  lOd.  home  ;  8s.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

Occupations  which  are  Accompanied  by  the  Generation  and  Scattering  of  Abnormal 
Quantities  of  Dust — Trades  in  which  there  is  Danger  of  Metallic  Poisoning— Certain  Chemi- 
cal Trades — Some  Miscellaneous  Occupations — Trades  in  which  Various  Poisonous  Vapours 
are  Inhaled — General  Hygienic  Considerations — Index. 

Industrial  Uses  of  Air,  Steam  and 

Water. 

DRYING  BY  MEANS  OF  AIR  AND  STEAM.  Explana- 
tions,  Formulae,  and  Tables  for  Use  in  Practice.  Translated  from  the 
German  of  E.  HAUSBRAND.  Two  folding  Diagrams  and  Thirteen  Tables. 
Crown  8vo.  72  pp.  Price  5s.  net.  (Post  free,  5s.  3d.  home;  5s.  6d. 
abroad.)  Contents. 

British  and  Metric  Systems  Compared — Centigrade  and  Fahr.  Thermometers — Estimation 
of  the  Maximum  Weight  of  Saturated  Aqueous  Vapour  which  can  be  contained  in  1  kilo, 
of  Air  at  Different  Pressure  and  Temperatures — Calculation  of  the  Necessary  Weight  and 
Volume  of  Air,  and  of  the  Least  Expenditure  of  Heat,  per  Drying  Apparatus  with  Heated 
Air,  at  the  Atmospheric  Pressure :  A ,  With  the  Assumption  that  the  Air  is  Completely  Satur- 
ated with  Vapour  both  before  Entry  and  after  Exit  from  the  Apparatus — B,  When  the 
Atmospheric  Air  is  Completely  Saturated  before  entry,  but  at  its  exit  is  only  f ,  \  or  J  Saturated 
— C,  When  the  Atmospheric  Air  is  nof  Saturated  with  Moisture  before  Entering  the  Drying 
Apparatus — Drying  Apparatus,  in  which,  in  the  Drying  Chamber,  a  Pressure  is  Artificially 
Created,  Higher  or  Lower  than  that  of  the  Atmosphere — Drying  by  Means  of  Superheated 
Steam,  without  Air— Heating  Surface,  Velocity  of  the  Air  Current,  Dimensions  of  the  Drying 
Room,  Surface  of  the  Drying  Material,  Losses  of  Heat — Index. 

(See  also  "  Evaporating,  Condensing  and  Cooling  Apparatus,"  p.  26.) 

PURE  AIR,  OZONE  AND  WATER.     A  Practical  Treatise 

of  their  Utilisation  and  Value  in  Oil,  Grease,  Soap,  Paint,  Glue  and 

other  Industries.     By  W.  B.  COWELL.     Twelve  Illustrations.     Crown 

8vo.     85  pp.     Price  5s.  net.     (Post  free,  5s.  3d.  home ;  5s.  6d.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Atmospheric  Air;  Lifting  of  Liquids ;  Suction  Process;  Preparing  Blown  Oils;  Preparing 
Siccative  Drying  Oils — Compressed  Air ;  Whitewash — Liquid  Air;  Retrocession — Purification 
of  Water;  Water  Hardness — Fleshings  and  Bones — Ozonised  Air  in  the  Bleaching  and  De- 
odorising of  Fats,  Glues,  etc. ;  Bleaching  Textile  Fibres— Appendix :  Air  and  Gases ;  Pressure 
of  Air  at  Various  Temperatures ;  Fuel;  Table  of  Combustibles;  Saving  of  Fuel  by  Heating 
Feed  Water,  Table  of  Solubilities  of  Scale  Making  Minerals;  British  Thermal  Units  Tables  ; 
Volume  of  the  Flow  of  Steam  into  the  Atmosphere:  Temperature  of  Steam — Index. 

THE  INDUSTRIAL  USES  OF  WATER.  COMPOSI- 
TION —  EFFECTS— TROUBLES  —  REMEDIES— RE- 
SIDUARY WATERS— PURIFICATION— ANALYSIS. 

By  H.  DE   LA  Coux.      Royal  8vo.      Translated  from  the  French  and 
Revised  by  ARTHUR  MORRIS.    364  pp.     135  Illustrations.    Price  10s.  6d. 
net.     (Post  free,  11s.  home;  11s.  6d.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

Chemical  Action  of  Water  in  Nature  and  in  Industrial  Use— Composition  of  Waters- 
Solubility  of  Certain  Salts  in  Water  Considered  from  the  Industrial  Point  of  View — Effects  on 
the  Boiling  of  Water — Effects  of  Water  in  the  Industries — Difficulties  with  Water — Feed 
Water  for  Boilers— Water  in  Dyeworks,  Print  Works,  and  Bleach  Works— Water  in  the 
Textile  Industries  and  in  Conditioning— Water  in  Soap  Works— Water  in  Laundries  and 
Washhouses— Water  in  Tanning— Water  in  Preparing  Tannin  and  Dyewood  Extracts— Water 
in  Papermaking— Water  in  Photography— Water  in  Sugar  Refining— Water  in  Making  Ices 
and  Beverages— Water  in  Cider  Making— Water  in  Brewing— Water  in  Distilling— Preliminary 
Treatment  and  Apparatus — Substances  Used  for  Preliminary  Chemical  Purification — Com- 
mercial Specialities  and  their  Employment— Precipitation  of  Matters  in  Suspension  in  Water 
—Apparatus  for  the  Preliminary  Chemical  Purification  of  Water— Industrial  Filters— Indus- 
trial Sterilisation  of  Water — Residuary  Waters  and  their  Purification — Soil  Filtration — 
Purification  by  Chemical  Processes — Analyses — Index. 

(See  Books  on  Smoke  Prevention,  Engineering  and  Metallurgy,  p.  26,  etc.) 


13 

X  Rays. 

PRACTICAL  X  RAY  WORK.  By  FRANK  T.  ADDYMAN, 
B.Sc.  (Lond.),  F.I.C.,  Member  of  the  Roentgen  Society  of  London  ; 
Radiographer  to  St.  George's  Hospital;  Demonstrator  of  Physics  and 
Chemistry,  and  Teacher  of  Radiography  in  St.  George's  Hospital 
Medical  School.  Demy  8vo.  Twelve  Plates  from  Photographs  of  X  Ray 
Work.  Fifty-two  Illustrations.  200  pp.  Price  10s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free, 
10s.  lOd.  home;  11s.  3d.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Historical — Work  leading  up  to  the  Discovery  of  the  X  Rays — The  Discovery — Appara  = 
tus  and  its  Management — Electrical  Terms — Sources  of  Electricity — Induction  Coils — 
Electrostatic  Machines — Tubes — Air  Pumps — Tube  Holders  and  Stereoscopic  Apparatus — 
Fluorescent  Screens — Practical  X  Ray  Work — Installations — Radioscopy — Radiography — 
X  Rays  in  Dentistry — X  Rays  in  Chemistry — X  Rays  in  War — Index. 

List  of  Plates. 

Frontispiece — Congenital  Dislocation  of  Hip-Joint. — I.,  Needle  in  Finger. — II.,  Needle  in 
Foot.— III.,  Revolver  Bullet  in  Calf  and  Leg.— IV.,  A  Method  of  Localisation.— V  ,  Stellate 
Fracture  of  Patella  showing  shadow  of  "Strapping". — VI.,  Sarcoma. — VII.,  Six-weeks-old 
Injury  to  Elbow  showing  new  Growth  of  Bone.— VIII.,  Old  Fracture  of  Tibia  and  Fibula 
badly  set. — IX.,  Heart  Shadow. — X.,  Fractured  Femur  showing  Grain  of  Splint. — XI.,  Bar- 
rell's  Method  of  Localisation. 

India-Rubber  and  Gutta  Percha. 

INDIA-RUBBER      AND     GUTTA      PERCHA.        Second 

English  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.  Based  on  the  French  work  of 
T.  SEELIGMANN,  G.  LAMY  TORRILHON  and  H.  FALCONNET  by  JOHN 
GEDDES  MC!NTOSH.  Royal  8vo.  100  Illustrations.  400  pages.  Price 
12s.6d.net.  (Post  free,  13s.  home  ;  13s.  6d.  abroad.)  [Just  published. 
Contents. 

India- Rubber. — Indiarubber,  Latex — Definitions — Laticiferous  Vessels — Botanical  Origin 
— Habitats — Methods  of  obtaining  the  Latex — Methods  of  Preparing  Raw  or  Crude  India- 
rubber — Rubber  Cultivation  in  Various  Countries— Climatology — Soil — Rational  Culture  and 
Acclimatisation  of  the  Different  Species  of  Indiarubber  Plants — Classification  of  the  Com- 
mercial Species  of  Raw  Rubber — Physical  and  Chemical  Properties  of  the  Latex  and  of 
Indiarubber — General  Considerations — Mechanical  Transformation  of  Natural  Rubber  into 
Washed  or  Normal  Rubber  (Purification) — Softening,  Cutting,  Washing,  Drying,  Storage — 
Mechanical  Transformation  of  Normal  Rubber  into  Masticated  Rubber — Vulcanisation  of 
Normal  Rubber — Chemical  and  Physical  Properties  of  Vulcanised  Rubber — Hardened  Rubber 
or  Ebonite— Considerations  on  Mineralisation  and  Other  Mixtures — Coloration  and  Dyeing — 
Analysis  of  Natural  or  Normal  Rubber  and  Vulcanised  Rubber — Rubber  Substitutes — 
Imitation  Rubber — Analysis  of  Indiarubber. 

Gutta  Percha. — Definition  of  Gutta  Percha — Botanical  Origin — Habitat — Climatology — 
Soil — Rational  Culture — Methods  of  Collection — Felling  and  Ringing  versus  Tapping — Extrac- 
tion of  Gutta  Percha  from  Leaves  by  Toluene,  etc. — Classification  of  the  Different  Species  of 
Commercial  Gutta  Percha — Physical  and  Chemical  Properties  of  Gutta  Percha — Mechanical 
Treatment  of  Gutta  Percha— Methods  of  Analysing  Gutta  Percha— Gutta  Perchr  Substitutes. 

Leather  Trades. 

PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  LEATHER  IN- 
DUSTRY. By  A.  M.  VILLON.  Translated  by  FRANK  T. 
ADDYMAN,  B.Sc.  (Lond.),  F.I.C.,  F.C.S. ;  and  Corrected  by  an  Emi- 
nent Member  of  the  Trade.  500  pp.,  royal  8vo.  123  Illustrations. 
Price  21s.  net.  (Post  free,  21s.  6d.  home  ;  22s.  6d.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

Preface — Translator's  Preface — List  of  Illustrations. 

Part  I.,  Materials  used  in  Tanning — Skins:  Skin  and  its  Structure;  Skins  used  in 
Tanning;  Various  Skins  and  their  Uses — Tannin  and  Tanning  Substances:  Tannin;  Barks 
(Oak);  Barks  other  than  Oak;  Tanning  Woods;  Tannin-bearing  Leaves;  Excrescences; 
Tan-bearing  Fruits;  Tan-bearing  Roots  and  Bulbs;  Tanning  Juices;  Tanning  Substances 
used  in  Various  Countries;  Tannin  Extracts;  Estimation  of  Tannin  and  Tannin  Principles. 

Part  II.,  Tanning — The  Installation  of  a  Tannery:  Tan  Furnaces;  Chimneys,  Boilers, 
etc.;  Steam  Engines — Grinding  and  Trituration  of  Tanning  Substances:  Cutting  up  Bark; 
Grinding  Bark;  The  Grinding  of  Tan  Woods;  Powdering  Fruit,  Galls  and  Grains;  Notes  on 
the  Grinding  of  Bark— Manufacture  of  Sole  Leather:  Soaking;  Sweating  and  Unhairing; 
Plumping  and  Colouring;  Handling;  Tanning;  Tanning  Elephants'  Hides;  Drying; 
Striking  or  Pinning — Manufacture  of  Dressing  Leather:  Soaking;  Depilation;  New  Pro- 
cesses for  the  Depilation  of  Skins;  Tanning;  Cow  Hides;  Horse  Hides;  Goat  Skins;  Manu- 
facture of  Split  Hides — On  Various  Methods  of  Tanning:  Mechanical  Methods;  Physical 
Methods;  Chemical  Methods;  Tanning  with  Extracts— Quantity  and  Quality;  Quantity; 
Net  Cost ;  Quality  of  Leather — Various  Manipulations  of  Tanned  Leather :  Second  Tanning  ; 
Grease  Stains;  Bleaching  Leather;  Waterproofing  Leather;  Weighting  Tanned  Leather; 
Preservation  of  Leather— Tanning  Various  Skins. 


14 

Part  III.,  Currying  —  Waxed  Calf:  Preparation;  Shaving;  Stretching  or  Slicking; 
Oiling  the  Grain ;  Oiling  the  Flesh  Side;  Whitening  and  Graining;  Waxing;  Finishing;  Dry 
Finishing;  Finishing  in  Colour;  Cost — White  Calf:  Finishing  in  White — Cow  Hide  for 
Upper  Leathers:  Black  Cow  Hide;  White  Cow  Hide;  Coloured  Cow  Hide— Smooth  Cow 
Hide — Black  Leather — Miscellaneous  Hides:  Horse;  Goat;  Waxed  Goat  Skin;  Matt  Goat 
Skin — Russia  Leather:  Russia  Leather;  Artificial  Russia  Leather. 

Part  IV.,  Enamelled,  Hungary  and  Chamoy  Leather,  Morocco,  Parchment,  Furs 
and  Artificial  Leather— Enamelled  Leather:  Varnish  Manufacture;  Application  of  the 
Enamel;  Enamelling  in  Colour — Hungary  Leather:  Preliminary;  Wet  Work  or  Prepara- 
tion; Aluming;  Dressing  or  Loft  Work;  Tallowing;  Hungary  Leather  from  Various  Hides 
— Tawing:  Preparatory  Operations;  Dressing;  Dyeing  Tawed  Skins;  Rugs — Chamoy  Leather 
— Morocco:  Preliminary  Operations,  Morocco  Tanning;  Mordants  used  in  Morocco  Manu- 
facture; Natural  Colours  used  in  Morocco  Dyeing;  Artificial  Colours;  Different  Methods 
of  Dyeing;  Dyeing  with  Natural  Colours;  Dyeing  with  Aniline  Colours;  Dyeing  with 
Metallic  Salts;  Leather  Printing ;  Finishing  Morocco ;  Shagreen  ;  Bronzed  Leather — Gilding 
and  Silvering:  Gilding;  Silvering;  Nickel  and  Cobalt — Parchment — Furs  and  Furriery: 
Preliminary  Remarks;  Indigenous  Furs;  Foreign  Furs  from  Hot  Countries;  Foreign  Furs 
from  Cold  Countries;  Furs  from  Birds'  Skins;  Preparation  of  Furs;  Dressing;  Colouring; 
Preparation  of  Birds'  Skins;  Preservation  of  Furs — Artificial  Leather:  Leather  made  from 
Scraps;  Compressed  Leather;  American  Cloth;  Papier  Mache;  Linoleum;  Artificial  Leather. 

Part  V.,  Leather  Testing  and  the  Theory  of  Tanning— Testing  and  Analysis  of  Leather  ; 
Physical  Testing  of  Tanned  Leather;  Chemical  Analysis — The  Theory  of  Tanning  and  the 
other  Operations  of  the  Leather  and  Skin  Industry:  Theory  of  Soaking;  Theory  of  Un- 
hairing;  Theory  of  Swelling;  Theory  of  Handling;  Theory  of  Tanning;  Theory  of  the 
Action  of  Tannin  on  the  Skin;  Theory  of  Hungary  Leather  Making;  Theory  of  Tawing; 
Theory  of  Chamoy  Leather  Making;  Theory  of  Mineral  Tanning. 

Part  VI.,  Uses  of  Leather— Machine  Belts:  Manufacture  of  Belting;  Leather  Chain 
Belts;  Various  Belts;  Use  of  Belts — Boot  and  Shoe-making:  Boots  and  Shoes;  Laces — 
Saddlery:  Composition  of  a  Saddle;  Construction  of  a  Saddle— Harness :  The  Pack  Saddle- 
Harness — Military  Equipment — Glove  Making — Carriage  Building — Mechanical  Uses. 

Appendix,  The  World's  Commerce  in  Leather— Europe;  America;  Asia;  Africa; 
Australasia — Index. 

THE  LEATHER  WORKER'S  MANUAL.  Being  a  Com- 
pendium of  Practical  Recipes  and  Working  Formulae  for  Curriers, 
Bootmakers,  Leather  Dressers,  Blacking  Manufacturers,  Saddlers, 
Fancy  Leather  Workers.  By  H.  C.  STANDAGE.  Demy  8vo.  165  pp. 
Price  7s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  7s.  lOd.  home  ;  8s.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

Blackings,  Polishes,  Glosses,  Dressings,  Renovators,  etc.,  for  Boot  and  Shoe  Leather — 
Harness  Blackings,  Dressings,  Greases,  Compositions,  Soaps,  and  Boot-top  Powders  and 
Liquids,  etc.,  etc. — Leather  Grinders'  Sundries — Currier's  Seasonings,  Blacking  Compounds, 
Dressings,  Finishes,  Glosses,  etc. — Dyes  and  Stains  for  Leather — Miscellaneous  Information 
— Chrome  Tannage — Index. 

(See  "  Wood  Products,  Distillates  and  Extracts,"  p.  29). 

Books  on  Pottery,  Bricks, 
Tiles,  Glass,  etc. 

MODERN  BRICKMAKING.  By  ALFRED  B.  SEARLE.  Royal 
8vo.  440  pages.  260  Illustrations  Price  12s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free, 
13s.  home;  13s.  6d.  abroad)  [Just published. 

Contents. 

Nature  and  Selection  of  Clays.— Lake  and  River  Deposited  Clays— Rock  Clays— Shale 
—Fire-clay.  The  Colour  of  Bricks.— Marls— White,  Yellow,  and  Red  Bricks— Terra-cotta— 
Blue  Bricks.  General  Characteristics  of  Bricks.— Fletton,  Bath,  and  Accrington  Bricks 
—London  Stocks— Plastic  Bricks— Sand-faced  Bricks—  Glazed  Bricks— Fire  Bricks— Qualities 
of  Bricks.  Sand,  Breeze,  and  other  Materials.— Chalk-water— General  Manufacture  of 
Bricks — Clay-washing — Haulage — Hand-Brickmaking — Preparation  of  the  Paste — Pugging 
—  Slop-moulding — Sand-moulding  —  Drying  —  Shrinking  — Pressing — Clamp  Kilns — Firing  a 
Clamp.  Plastic  Moulding  by  Machinery.— Wire-cut  Bricks— Brick  Machines  and  Plant- 
Crushing  Rolls — Grinding  Mills — Wet  Pans.  Mixers  and  Feeders. — Pug-mills,  Mouthpiece 
Presses,  and  Auger  Machines — Expression  Roller  Machines — Cutting  Tables — Repres-ing — 
Screw  Presses — Eccentric  Represses— Die- Boxes.  Drying. — Transport.  Stiff-plastic 
Process. — Mill  Feeding  Machines — Grinding  Mills — Elevating — Screens — Sieves — Revolving 
Screens  —  Stiff-plastic  Brickmaking  Machines  — Repressing  — Carrying-off — Drying  —  Kilns. 
Semi  =  Dry  or  Semi-Plastic  Process. — Lamination — Drying  Troubles — Moulds  and  Arrises. 
The  Dry  or  Dust  Process.— Lamination.  Kilns.— Down-draught  Kilns— Horizontal-draught 
Kilns — Continuous  Kilns — Up-draught  Kilns — Newcastle  Kiln — Gas-fired  Kilns — Semi-con- 
tinuous Kilns — Hoffmann  Kilns — Hot-air  Flues — Temporary  and  Permanent  Flues — Chamber 
Kilns — Steam — Draught — Mechanical  Draught — Gas-fired  Continuous  Kilns — Muffle  Kilns — 
Kiln  Construction. — Choice  of  Bricks — Foundations — Construction  of  Arches  and  Crowns — 
Fire  Boxes— Feed-holes  Chimneys— Selecting  a  Kiln.  Setting  and  Burning.— Up-draught 
and  Down-draught  Kilns — Horizontal-draught  or  Continuous  Kiln — Glazed  Bricks.  Firing. — 


15 

Drying  or  Steaming — Volatilization — Full  Fire — Smoking — Seger  Cones — Draught  Gauge — 
Cooling.  Vitrified  Bricks  for  Special  Work.— Clinkers  and  Paving  Bricks— Acid-proof 
Bricks.  Fire-Bricks  and  Blocks.— Materials— Grog— Grinding— Blocks— Drying— Dipped 
Fire-bricks — Firing  —  Silica  Bricks — Canister  Bricks — Bauxite  and  Magnesia  Bricks  — 
Neutral  Fire-bricks.  Glazed  Bricks.— Pressing— Dipping— Glazes— Coloured  Glazes— Ma- 
jolica Glazes— Firing — Salt-glazed  Bricks.  Perforated,  Radial,  and  Hollow  Bricks. — 
Fireproof  Flooring.  Moulded  and  Ornamental  Bricks— Drying  Raw  Clay— Sources  of 
Difficulty  and  Loss. — Improper  Materials  or  Site — Unsuitable  Methods  of  Working — Lack 
of  Capital— Defective  Accounting.— Index. 

THE  MANUAL  OF  PRACTICAL  POTTING.  Compiled 
by  Experts,  and  Edited  by  CHAS.  F.  BINNS.  Third  Edition,  Revised 
and  Enlarged.  200  pp.  Demy  8vo.  Price  17s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free 
17s.  lOd.  home;  18s.  3d.  abroad.) 

POTTERY  DECORATING,  A  Description  of  all  the  Pro- 
cesses for  Decorating  Pottery  and  Porcelain.  By  R.  HAINBACH. 
Translated  from  the  German.  Crown  8vo.  250  pp.  Twenty-two 
Illustrations.  Price  7s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  7s.  lOd.  home  ;  8s.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Glazes  and  Engobes. — Glazes  and  Their  Composition — Glaze  Materials — The  Prepara- 
tion of  Glazes— Coloured  Glazes— Engobes  and  Glazes  for  same— Porcelain  Glazes.  Ceramic 
Colours. — Preparation  of  Pure  Colours — Underglaze  Colours — Applying  the  Colours  on 
Earthenware — Glost  Fire  Colours — Muffle  Colours — Decorating  Porcelain  with  Metals — 
Decorating  Porcelain  by  Electroplating — Lustre  Decorating  on  Porcelain — Firing  Muffle 
Colours — Imitation  of  Paintings  on  Porcelain — Index. 

ARCHITECTURAL  POTTERY.  Bricks,  Tiles,  Pipes,  Ena- 
melled Terra-cottas,  Ordinary  and  Incrusted  Quarries,  Stoneware 
Mosaics,  Faiences  and  Architectural  Stoneware.  By  LEON  LEFBVRE. 
Translated  from  the  French  by  K.  H.  BIRD,  M.A.,  and  W.  MOORE 
BINNS.  With  Five  Plates.  950  Illustrations  in  the  Text,  and  numerous 
estimates.  500  pp.,  royal  8vo.  Price  15s.  net.  (Post  free,  15s.  6d. 
home;  16s.  6d.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Parti.,  Plain  Undecorated  Pottery.— Chapter  I.,  Clays  :  Sec.  1,  Classification,  General 
Geological  Remarks — Classification,  origin,  locality;  Sec.  2,  General  Properties  and  Composi- 
tion :  physical  properties,  contraction,  analysis,  influence  of  various  substances  on  the 
properties  of  clays;  Sec.  3,  Working  of  Clay  Pits — I.  Open  pits — II.  Underground  pits — 
Mining  Laws.  Chapter  II.,  Preparation  of  the  Clay:  Crushing  cylinders  and  mills,  pounding 
machines — Damping:  damping  machines — Soaking,  Shortening,  Pugging:  horse  and  steam 
pug-mills,  rolling  cylinders — Particulars  of  the  above  machines.  Chapter  III.,  Bricks  :  Sec.  1, 
Manufacture — (1)  Hand  and  machine  moulding. — I.  Machines  working  by  compression  :  on  soft 
clay,  on  semi-firm  clay,  on  firm  clay,  on  dry  clay. — II.  Expression  machines — Dies — Cutting- 
tables — Particulars  of  the  above  machines — Types  of  installations — Estimates — Planishing, 
hand  and  steam  presses,  particulars — (2)  Drying — Drying-roams  in  tiers,  closed  drying-rooms, 
in  tunnels,  in  galleries — Detailed  estimates  of  the  various  drying-rooms,  comparison  of  prices — 
Transport  from  the  machines  to  the  drying-rooms — (3)  Firing — I.  In  clamps — II.  In  intermittent 
kilns.  A.  Open  :  a.  using  wood ;  b.  coal ;  b'.  in  clamps  ;  b".  flame — B.  Closed  :  c.  direct  flame ; 
c'.  rectangular;  c".  round  ;  d.  reverberatory — III.  Continuous  kilns.  C.  With  solid  fuel :  round 
kiln,  rectangular  kiln,  chimneys  (plans  and  estimates) — D.  With  gas  fuel,  Fillard  kiln  (plans  and 
estimates),  Schneider  kiln  (plans  and  estimates),  water-gas  kiln — Heat  production  of  the  kilns; 
Sec.  2,  Dimensions,  Shapes,  Colours,  Decoration  and  Qualitv  of  Bricks — Hollow  bricks — 
Dimensions  and  prices  of  bricks,  various  shapes,  qualities — Various  hollow  bricks,  dimensions, 
resistance  qualities;  Sec.  3,  Applications — History — Asia,  Africa,  America,  Europe  :  Greek, 
Roman,  Byzantine,  Turkish,  Romanesque,  Gothic,  Renaissance.  Chapter  IV.,  Tiles:  Sec.  1, 
History;  etc. 

Part  11.,  Made=up  or  Decorated  Pottery.— Chapter  I.,  General  Remarks  on  the 
Decoration  of  Pottery :  Dips — Glazes :  composition,  colouring,  preparation,  harmony  with 
pastes — Special  processes  of  decoration — Enamels,  opaque,  transparent,  colours,  under-glaze, 
over-glaze— Other  processes.  Chapter  II.,  Glazed  and  Enamelled  Bricks — History:  Glazing 
—Enamelling— Applications— Enamelled  tiles.  Chapter  III.,  Decorated  Quarries:  I.  Paving 
Quarries — 1.  Decorated  with  dips — 2.  Stoneware:  A.  Fired  to  stoneware;  a.  of  slag  base — 
Applications  ;  b,  of  melting  clay — Applications — B.  Plain  or  incrusted  stoneware  ;  a.  of  special 
clay  (Stoke-on-Trent) — Manufacture — Application  —  b.  Of  felspar  base  —  Colouring,  manu- 
facture, moulding,  drying,  firing— Applications.  II.  Facing  Quarries — 1.  In  faience — A.  Of 
limestone  paste— B.  Of  silicious  paste— C  Of  felspar  paste— Manufacture,  firing— 2.  Of  glazed 
stoneware — 3.  Of  porcelain — Applications  of  facing  quarries.  III.  Stove  Quarries — Prepara- 
tion of  the  pastes,  moulding,  firing,  enamelling,  decoration — Applications.  Chapter  IV., 
Architectural  Decorated  Pottery:  Sec.  1,  Faiences;  Sec.  2,  Stoneware;  Sec.  3,  Porcelain. 
Chapter  V.,  Sanitary  Pottery  :  Stoneware  Pipes — Manufacture,  firing — Applications — Sinks — 
Applications — Urinals,  seats  and  pans — Applications — Drinking  fountains,  wash-stands.  Index. 


16 

CERAMIC  TECHNOLOGY :  Being  some  Aspects  of  Tech- 
nical Science  as  Applied  to  Pottery  Manufacture.  Edited  by  CHARLES 
F.  BINNS.  100  pp.  Demy  8vo.  Price  12s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free, 
12s.  lOd.  home;  13s.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Preface — The  Chemistry  of  Pottery  —  Analysis  and  Synthesis  —  Clays  and  their  Com- 
ponents—The Biscuit  Oven  —  Pyrometry  — Glazes  and  their  Composition  —  Colours  and 
Colour-making — Index. 

THE  ART  OF  RIVETING  GLASS,  CHINA  AND 
EARTHENWARE.  By  J.  HOWARTH.  Second  Edition. 
Paper  Cover.  Price  ls.net.  (By  post,  home  or  abroad,  Is.  Id.) 

NOTES  ON  POTTERY  CLAYS.  The  Distribution,  Pro- 
perties, Uses  and  Analyses  of  Ball  Clays,  China  Clays  and  China 
Stone.  By  JAS.  FAIRIE,  F.G.S.  132  pp.  Crown  8vo.  Price  3s.  6d. 
net.  (Post  free,  3s.  9d.  home ;  3s.  lOd.  abroad.) 

A  Reissue  of 

THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  STAFFORDSHIRE  POTTER- 
IES  ;  AND  THE  RISE  AND  PROGRESS  OF  THE 
MANUFACTURE  OF  POTTERY  AND  PORCELAIN. 

With  References  to  Genuine  Specimens,  and  Notices  of  Eminent  Pot- 
ters. By  SIMEON  SHAW.  (Originally  published  in  1829.)  265  pp. 
Demy  8vo.  Price  5s.  net.  (Post  free,  5s.  4d.  home ;  5s.  9d.  abroad.) 

A  Reissue  of 

THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  SEVERAL  NATURAL 
AND  ARTIFICIAL  HETEROGENEOUS  COM- 
POUNDS USED  IN  MANUFACTURING  POR- 
CELAIN, GLASS  AND  POTTERY.  By  SIMEON  SHAW. 
(Originally  published  in  1837.)  750  pp.  Royal  8vo.  Price  10s.  net. 
(Post  free,  10s.  6d.  home  ;  12s.  abroad.) 

BRITISH  POTTERY  MARKS.  By  G.  WOOLLISCROFT  RHEAD. 
Demy  8vo.  310  pp.  With  Fourteen  Illustrations  in  Half-tone  and 
upwards  of  Twelve-hundred  Marks  in  the  Text.  Price  7s.  6d.  net.  (Post 
free,  8s.  home  ;  8s.  3d.  abroad.)  [Just  published. 


Glassware,  Glass  Staining  and 
Painting. 

RECIPES  FOR  FLINT  GLASS  MAKING.  By  a  British 
Glass  Master  and  Mixer.  Sixty  Recipes.  Being  Leaves  from  the 
Mixing  Book  of  several  experts  in  the  Flint  Glass  Trade,  containing 
up-to  date  recipes  and  valuable  information  as  to  Crystal,  Demi-crystal 
and  Coloured  Glass  in  its  many  varieties.  It  contains  the  recipes  for 
cheap  metal  suited  to  pressing,  blowing,  etc.,  as  well  as  the  most  costly 
crystal  and  ruby.  Second  Edition.  Crown  8vo.  Price  10s.  6d.  net. 
(Post  free,  10s.  9d.  home ;  10s.  lOd.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

Ruby— Ruby  from  Copper— Flint  for  using  with  the  Ruby  for  Coating— A  German  Metal- 
Cornelian,  or  Alabaster — Sapphire  Blue — Crysophis — Opal — Turquoise  Blue — Gold  Colour — 
Dark  Green — Green  (common) — Green  for  Malac.  ite — Blue  for  Malachite — Black  for  Mala- 
chite—Black—Common Canary  Batch— Canary— White  Opaque  Glass— Sealing-wax  Red  — 
Flint — Flint  Glass  (Crystal  and  Demi) — Achromatic  Glass — Paste  Glass — White  rnamel — 
Firestone— Dead  White  (for  moons)— White  Agate— Canary— Canary  Enamel— Index. 


17 

A  TREATISE  ON   THE   ART   OP    GLASS   PAINTING. 

Prefaced  with  a  Review  of  Ancient  Glass.     By  ERNEST  R.  SUPPLING. 
With  One  Coloured  Plate  and  Thirty-seven  Illustrations.     Demy  8vo. 
140  pp.     Price  7s.  6d.  net.     (Post  free,  7s.  lOd.  home;  8s.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

A  Short  History  of  Stained  Glass — Designing  Scale  Drawings — Cartoons  and  the  Cut  Line 
— Various  Kinds  of  Glass  Cutting  for  Windows — The  Colours  and  Brushes  used  in  Glass 
Painting — Painting  on  Glass,  Dispersed  Patterns — Diapered  Patterns — Aciding — Firing — 
Fret  Lead  Glazing— Index. 

PAINTING  ON  GLASS  AND  PORCELAIN  AND 
ENAMEL  PAINTING.  A  Complete  Introduction  to  the 
Preparation  of  all  the  Colours  and  Fluxes  used  for  Painting  on  Porce- 
lain. Enamel  Faience  and  Stoneware,  the  Coloured  Pastes  and  Col- 
oured Glasses,  together  with  a  Minute  Description  of  the  Firing  of 
Colours  and  Enamels.  By  FELIX  HERMANN,  Technical  Chemist.  With 
Eighteen  Illustrations.  300  pp.  Translated  from  the  German  second 
and  enlarged  Edition.  Price  10s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  10s.  lOd.  home  ; 
11s.  abroad.) 

Paper  Making,  Paper  Dyeing, 
and  Testing. 

THE  DYEING  OP  PAPER  PULP.  A  Practical  Treatise  for 
the  use  of  Papermakers,  Paperstainers.  Students  and  others.  By 
JULIUS  ERFURT.  Manager  of  a  Paper  Mill.  Translated  into  English 
and  Edited  with  Additions  by  JULIUS  HOBNER,  F.C.S.,  Lecturer  on 
Papermaking  at  the  Manchester  Municipal  Technical  School.  With 
Illustrations  and  157  patterns  of  paper  dyed  in  the  pulp.  Royal 
8vo,  180  pp.  Price  15s.  net.  (Post  free.  15s.  6d.  home;  16s.  6d.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Behaviour  of  the  Paper  Fibres  during  the  Process  of  Dyeing,  Theory  of  the 
Mordant— Colour  Fixing  Mediums  (Mordants)— Influence  of  the  Quality  of  the  Water 
Used -Inorganic  Colours— Organic  Colours— Practical  Application  of  the  Coal  Tar 
Colours  according  to  their  Properties  and  their  Behaviour  towards  the  Different 
Paper  Fibres—  uyed  Patterns  on  Various  Pulp  Mixtures— Dyeing  to  Shade— Index. 

THE    PAPER    MILL    CHEMIST.     By   HENRY   P.  STEVENS, 
M.A.,   Ph.D.,   F.I.C.     Royal  12mo.     60  Illustrations.      300  pp.      Price 
7s.  6d.  net.     (Post  free   7s.  9d.  home  ;'  7s.  lOd.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

Introduction. — Dealing  with  the  Apparatus  required  in  Chemical  Work  and  General 
Chemical  Manipulation,  introducing  the  subject  of  Qualitative  and  Quantitative  Analysis. 
Fuels.— Analysis  of  Coal,  Coke  and  other  Fuels — Sampling  and  Testing  for  Moisture,  Ash, 
Calorific  Value,  etc. — Comparative  Heating  Value  of  different  Fuels  and  Relative  Efficiency. 
Water. — Analysis  for  Steam  Raising  and  for  Paper  Making  Purposes  generally — Water 
Softening  and  Purification — A  List  of  the  more  important  Water  Softening  Plant,  giving 
Power  required,  Weight,  Space  Occupied,  Out-put  and  Approximate  Cost.  Raw  Materials 
and  Detection  of  Adulterants. — Analysis  and  Valuation  of  the  more  important  Chemicals 
used  in  Paper  Making,  including  Lime,  Caustic  Soda,  Sodium  Carbonate,  Mineral  Acids, 
Bleach  Antichlor,  Alum,  Rosin  and  Rosin  Size,  Glue  Gela  in  and  Casein,  Starch,  China  Clay, 
Blanc  Fixe,  Satin  White  and  other  Loading  Materials,  Mineral  Colours  and  Aniline  Dyes. 
Manufacturing  Operations. — Rags  and  the  Chemical  Control  of  Rag  Boiling — Esparto 
Boiling— Wood  Boiling— Testing  Spent  Liquors  and  Recovered  Ash— Experimental  Tests 
with  Raw  Fibrous  Materials — Boiling  in  Autoclaves — Bleaching  and  making  up  Hand  Sheets 
—Examination  of  Sulphite  Liquors— Estimation  of  Moisture  in  Pulp  and  Half-stuff— Recom- 
mendations of  the  British  Wood  Pulp  Association.  Finished  Products.— Paper  Testing 
including  Physical,  Chemical  and  Microscopical  Tests,  Area,  Weight,  Thickness,  Apparent 
Specific  Gravity,  Bulk  or  Air  Space.  Determination  of  Machine  Direction,  Thickness, 
Strength,  Stretch,  Resistance  to  Crumpling  and  Friction,  Transparency,  Absorbency  and 
other  qualities  of  Blotting  Papers— Determination  of  the  Permeability  of  Filtering  Papers- 
Detection  and  Estimation  of  Animal  and  Vegetable  Size  in  Paper — Sizing  Qualities  of 
Paper— Fibrous  Constituents— Microscopical  Examination  of  Fibres— The  Effect  of  Beating 
on  Fibres — Staining  Fibres  — M'neral  Matter — Ash — Qualitative  and  Quantitative  Examina- 
tion of  Mineral  Matter— Examination  of  Coated  Papers  and  Colouring  Matters  in  Paper. 


18 
Contents  of  "The  Paper  Mill  Chemist"— continued. 

Tables. — English  and  Metrical  Weights  and  Measures  with  Equivalents — Conversion  of 
Grams  to  Grains  and  vice  versa — Equivalent  Costs  per  lb.,  cwt.,and  ton — Decimal  Equivalents 
of  Ibs.,  qrs.,  and  cwts. — Thermometric  and  Barometric  Scales — Atomic  Weights  and  Molecular 
Weights — Factors  for  Calculating  the  Percentage  of  Substance  Sought  from  the  Weight  of 
Substance  Found — Table  of  Solubilities  of  Substances  Treated  of  in  Paper  Making — Specific 
Gravity  Tables  of  such  substances  as  are  used  in  Paper  Making,  including  Sulphuric  Acid, 
Hydrochloric  Acid,  Bleach,  Milk  of  Lime,  Caustic  Soda,  Carbonate  of  Soda,  etc.,  giving 
Percentage  Strength  with  Specific  Gravity  and  Degrees  Tw.— Hardness  Table  for  Soap 
Tests — Dew  Point — Wet  and  Dry  Bulb  Tables — Properties  of  Saturated  Steam,  giving 
Temperature,  Pressure  and  Volume — List  of  Different  Machines  used  in  the  Paper  Making 
Industry,  giving  Size,  Weight,  Space  Occupied,  Power  to  Drive,  Out-put  and  Approximate 
Cost — Calculation  of  Aloisture  in  Pulp — Rag-Boiling  Tables,  giving  Percentages  of  Lime, 
Soda  and  Time  required — Loss  in  Weight  in  Rags  and  other  Raw  Materials  during  Boiling 
and  Bleaching — Conditions  of  Buying  and  Selling  as  laid  down  by  the  Paper  Makers'  Associa- 
tion— Table  of  Names  and  Sizes  of  Papers — Table  for  ascertaining  the  Weight  per  Ream  from 
the  Weight  per  Sheet — Calculations  of  Areas  and  Volumes — Logarithms — Blank  pages  for 
Notes. 

THE  TREATMENT  OF  PAPER  FOR  SPECIAL 
PURPOSES.  By  L.  E.  ANDES.  Translated  from  the 
German.  Crown  8vo.  48  Illustrations.  250  pp.  Price  6s.  net.  (Post 
free,  6s.  4d.  home ;  6s.  6d.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

I.,  Parchment  Paper,  Vegetable  Parchment.— The  Parchment  Paper  Machine- 
Opaque  Supple  Parchment  Paper — Thick  Parchment — Krugler's  Parchment  Paper  and  Parch- 
ment Slates — Double  and  Triple  Osmotic  Parchment — Utilising  Waste  Parchment  Paper — 
Parchmented  Linen  and  Cotton — Parchment  Millboard — Imitation  Horn  and  Ivory  from 
Parchment  Paper — Imitation  Parchment  Paper — Artificial  Parchment — Testing  the  Sulphuric 
Acid.  II.,  Papers  for  Transfer  Pictures.  III.,  Papers  for  Preservative  and  Packing 
Purposes. — Butter  Paper — Wax  Paper — Paraffin  Paper — Wrapping  Paper  for  Silverware — 
Waterproof  Paper — Anticorrosive  Paper.  IV.,  Grained  Transfer  Papers.  V.,  Fireproof  and 
Antifalsification  Papers.  VI.,  Paper  Articles.— Vulcanised  Paper  Mache— Paper  Bottles- 
Plastic  Articles  of  Paper— Waterproof  Coverings  for  Walls  and  Ceilings— Paper  Wheels, 
Roofing  and  Boats — Pai  er  Barrels — Paper  Boxes — Paper  Horseshoes.  VII.,  Gummed  Paper. 
VIII.,  Hectograph  Papers.  IX.,  Insecticide  Papers.— Fly  Papers— Moth  Papers.  X., 
Chalk  and  Leather  Papers. — Glace  Chalk  Paper— Leather  Paper — Imitation  Leather. 
XL,  Luminous  Papers — Blue-Print  Papers — Blotting  Papers.  XII.,  Metal  Papers — Medi- 
cated Papers.  XIII.,  Marbled  Papers.  XIV.,  Tracing  and  Copying  Papers — Iridiscent  or 
Mother  of  Pearl  Papers.  XV.,  Photographic  Papers— Shellac  Paper— Fumigating  Papers- 
Test  Papers.  XVI.,  Papers  for  Cleaning  and  Polishing  Purposes — Glass  Paper — 
Pumic  Paper— Emery  Paper.  XVII.,  Lithographic  Transfer  Papers.  XIX.,  Sundry 
Special  Papers — Satin  Paper — Enamel  Paper — Cork  Paper — Split  Paper — Electric  Paper — 
Paper  Matches — Magic  Pictures — Laundry  Blue  Papers — Blue  Paper  for  Bleachers.  XX., 
Waterproof  Papers — Washable  Drawing  Papers — Washable  Card — Washable  Coloured  Paper 
— Waterproof  Millboard — Sugar  Paper.  XXL,  The  Characteristics  of  Paper — Paper  Testing. 

Enamelling  on  Metal. 

ENAMELS  AND  ENAMELLING.  For  Enamel  Makers, 
Workers  in  Gold  and  Silver,  and  Manufacturers  of  Objects  of  Art. 
By  PAUL  RANDAU.  Translated  from  the  German.  With  Sixteen  Illus- 
trations. Demy  8vo.  180  pp.  Price  10s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  10s.  lOd. 
home  ;  11s.  abroad.) 

THE    ART    OF    ENAMELLING    ON    METAL.      By   W. 

NORMAN   BROWN.     Twenty-eight    Illustrations.     Crown   8vo.      60   pp. 
Price  2s.  6d.  net.     (Post  free,  2s.  9d.  home  and  abroad.) 

Silk   Manufacture. 

SILK    THROWING    AND    WASTE    SILK    SPINNING. 

By  HOLLINS  RAYNER.       Demy  8vo.     170  pp.     117  Illus.     Price  5s.  net. 
(Post  free,  5s.  4d.  home ;  5s.  6d.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

The  Silkworm— Cocoon  Reeling  and  Qualities  of  Silk— Silk  Throwing— Silk  Wastes— The 
Preparation  of  Silk  Waste  for  Degumming — Silk  Waste  Degumming,  Schapping  and  Dis- 
charging— The  Opening  and  Dressing  of  Wastes — Silk  Waste  "  Drawing  "  or  "  Preparing  " 

achinery — Long  Spinning — Short  Spinning — Spinning  and  Finishing  Processes — Utilisation 

Waste  Products — Noil  Spinning — Exhaust  Noil  Spinning. 


19 

Books  on  Textile  and  Dyeing 
Subjects. 

THE  FINISHING  OF  TEXTILE  FABRICS  (Woollen, 
Worsted,  Union  and  other  Cloths).  By  ROBERTS  BEAUMONT,  M.Sc., 
M.I.Mech.E.,  Professor  of  Textile  Industries,  the  University  of  Leeds; 
Author  of  "  Colour  in  Woven  Design";  ''Woollen  and  Worsted  Cloth 
Manufacture"  ;  "  Woven  Fabrics  at  the  World's  Fair  "  ;  Vice-President 
of  the  Jury  of  Award  at  the  Paris  Exhibition,  1900 ;  Inspector  of  Tex- 
tile Institutes ;  Society  of  Arts  Silver  Medallist ;  Honorary  Medallist 
of  the  City  and  Guilds  of  London  Institute.  With  150  Illustrations  of 
Fibres,  Yarns  and  Fabrics,  also  Sectional  and  other  Drawings  of 
Finishing  Machinery.  Demy  8vo,  260  pp.  Price  10s.  6d.  net.  (Post 
free,  10s.  lOd.  home;  11s.  3d.  abroad.)  [Just  Published. 

Contents. 

I.,  Woollen,  Worsted  and  Union  Fabrics.— Sections  (1)  Woollen  Cloths:  Saxonies  and 
Cheviots— (2)  Worsted  Fabrics :  Botany  and  Crossbred— (3)  Fancy  and  Piece-dye  Woollens 
— (4)  Fancy  and  Piece-dye  Worsteds- (5)  Union  Fabrics :  Piece-dyes  and  Fancies— (6)  Whip- 
cords, Buckskins,  Venetians,  C  >rds  and  Twist  warp  Fancies — (7)  Heavy  Woollens:  Box 
Cloths,  Meltons,  Pilots— (8)  Friezes,  Shetlands  and  Naps — (9)  Special  Types  of  Overcoatings 
—  (10)  Golf  Cloakings— (11)  Vestings.  JI.,  Processes  of  Finishing  and  their  Effects.— 
Sections — (12)  Qualities  of  Unfinished  Woollens — (13)  Worsted  Fabrics  and  Finishing — (14) 
Preliminary  Work— (15)  Finishing  Processes— (16)  Scouring  and  the  Detergents  Used— (17) 
Hydro-extracting — (18)  Tentering  and  Drying — (19)  Felting  and  its  Effects— (20)  Condition  of 
the  Piece  in  Milling— (21)  Potash  and  Soda  Soaps— (22)  Effects  of  Raising— (23)  Influence  of 
Textural  Conditions  on  Raising — (24)  Theory  of  Raising  and  the  Twine  in  the  Yarn — (25)  Fabric 
Structure  and  Raising  Surface — (26)  Several  Kinds  of  Raising — (27)  Lustring  Proceses — (28) 
Pressing.  III.,  The  Process  of  Scouring :  Scouring  Machines.— Sections  (29)  Impurities  in 
Greasy  Pieces— (30)  Scouring  Machines— (31)  The  Rope  Machine:  Scouring  Operation— (32) 
Washing-off—  (33)  Points  in  the  Use  of  the  Hope  Scourer- (34)  The  Open  Scourer:  Construc- 
tion—(35)  Advantages  of  the  Open  Scourer — (36)  Scouring  Machine  with  Flanged  Rollers— (37) 
Combined  Scouring  and  Milling  Machine.  IV.,  Theory  of  Felting.— Sections  (38)  Qualities 
of  Wool  in  Relation  to  Felting— (39)  Shrinkage  Properties  of  Merino  and  Cheviot  Wools— (40) 
Felting  Contrasts,  Merino  and  Southdown  Wools— (41)  Utility  in  Woven  Manufactures  of 
Wools  of  Different  Shrinking  Qualities— (42)  Yarn  Structure— (43)  Felting  Affected  by  Yarn 
Composition — (44)  Methods  of  Yarn  Construction  and  Felting — (45)  Shrinkage  of  Fabrics  made 
of  Re-manufactured  Fibres— (46)  Degree  of  Twine  in  the  Yarn — (47)  Folded  Yarns  and  Shrink- 
age. V.,  Theory  of  Felting :  Fabric  Structure.— Sections  (48)  Build  of  the  Fabric— (49) 
Felting  Quality  of  Standard  Weaves — (50)  Influence  of  Intersections — (51)  Variation  in  Wefting 
—(52)  Irregular  Weaves  and  Felting— (53)  Felting  of  Two-ply  Warp  and  Weft  Fabrics— (54) 
Relative  Shrinkage  of  Single  and  Backed  Weaves.  VI.,  Theory  of  Felting :  Compound 
Fabrics.— Sections  (55)— Structure  of  Backed  Fabrics  and  the  Felting  Quality  of  the  Cloth— 
(56)  Three-ply  Weft  Fabrics— (57)  Yarn  Characteristics  in  Compound  Weft  Fabrics— (58) 
Fabrics  Compound  in  the  Warp— (59)  Felting  of  Compound  Weaves— (60)  Double  Cloths  and 
Varied  Felting — (61)  Stitching  or  Tying  of  Double  and  Compound  Weaves  and  the  Effects  on 
Milling.  VII.,  Fulling  and  Milling  Machinery.— Sections  (62)  "Fulling"  and  "Milling" 
— (63)  Routine  in  the  Fulling  Stocks  and  Milling  Machine — (64)  Construction  and  Working  of 
the  Fuller  Stocks— (65)  Milling  Machines— (66)  Routine  of  Milling— (67)  Corrugated  Guide 
Rollers— (68)  Machines  with  Two  or  More  Upper  Rollers— (69)  Dupl  x  Machines— (70)  Machines 
without  Flanged  Roller— (71)  Mechanical  Devices  applied  to  the  Spout— (72)  Roller  Milling 
Machine  with  Stampers  in  the  Spout — (73)  Principle  of  Combined  Milling  Machine  and  Stocks 
—(74)  Combined  Scouring  and  Milling— (75)  Milling  without  Artificial  Compression.  VIII., 
The  Theory  of  Raising.— Sections  (76)  Treatment  of  the  Cloth— (77)  Condition  of  the  Cloth 
—(78)  Dry  Raising— (79)  Damp  and  Wet  Raising— (80)  Raising  Determined  by  the  Degree  of 
Felting— (81)  Quality  of  the  Material  and  the  Raised  Result— <82)  Raising  and  Weave  Structure 
— (83)  Quality  of  the  Fibre  and  Yarn  Structure — (84)  Raising  of  Fabrics  in  which  Special  or 
Fancy  Yarns  are  used.  IX.,  Raising  Machinery  and  the  Raising  Process. — Sections  (85) 
Hand  Raising — (86)  Raising  Gig — (87)  Operation  of  the  Raising  Gig — (88)  Two-cylinder 
Raising  Gig— (89)  Teazle  Raising— (90)  Teazles  and  Card-wire  Compared— (91)  Card-wire 
Raising  Machines — (92)  Modern  Card  Raising  Machines — (93)  The  Horizontal  Machine — 
(94)  Rotary  Machines.  X.,  Cutting,  Cropping  or  Shearing.— Sections— (97)  Cropping 
—(98)  The  Effects  of  Cutting— (99)  Cutting  Machines— (100)  The  Cross-Cutting  Machine— 
(101)  The  Continuous  Cutting  Machine— (102)  Setting  of  the  Cutting  Parts— (103)  Form 
of  the  Bar  or  "Bed"  under  the  Cutters— (104)  Machines  with  Two  or  More  Cylinders— (105) 
Grinding.  XL,  Lustring  Processes  and  Machinery.— Sections  (106)  The  Production  of 
Lustre  on  Woollen  and  Worsted  Fabrics— (107)  Steaming  and  Cooling  Machines— (108) 
Pressing— <109)  The  Vertical  Press— (110)  The  Rotary  Press— (111)  Intermittent  Pressing 
Machine.  XII.,  Methods  of  Finishing.— Sections  (112)  Routines  of  Finishing— (113)  Woollen 
Routines  of  Finishing — (114)  Worsted  Routines  of  Finishing — (115)  Routines  of  Finishing  for 
Union  Fabrics— Index. 


20 

THE  CHEMICAL  TECHNOLOGY  OF  TEXTILE 
FIBRES:  Their  Origin,  Structure,  Preparation,  Washing, 
Bleaching,  Dyeing,  Printing  and  Dressing.  By  Dr.  GEORG  VON 
GEORGIEVICS.  Translated  from  the  German  by  CHARLES  SALTER. 
320  pp.  Forty-seven  Illustrations.  Royal  8vo.  Price  10s.  6d.  net. 
(Post  free,  11s.  home  ;  11s.  3d.  abroad.) 

POWER-LOOM  WEAVING  AND  YARN  NUMBERING, 

According  to  Various  Systems,  with  Conversion  Tables.  Translated 
from  the  German  of  ANTHON  GRUNER.  With  Twenty-Six  Diagrams 
in  Colours.  150  pp.  Crown  8vo.  Price  7s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free, 
7s.  9d.  home  ;  8s.  abroad.) 

TEXTILE  RAW  MATERIALS  AND  THEIR  CON- 
VERSION INTO  YARNS.  (The  Study  of  the  Raw 
Materials  and  the  Technology  of  the  Spinning  Process.)  By  JULIUS 
ZIPSER.  Translated  from  German  by  CHARLES  SALTER.  302  Illus- 
trations. 500  pp.  Demy  8vo.  Price  10s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  11s. 
home;  11s.  6d.  abroad.) 

GRAMMAR    OF    TEXTILE    DESIGN.       By    H.     NISBET, 
Weaving  and  Designing  Master,  Bolton  Municipal  Technical  School. 
Demy  8vo.     280  pp.     490  Illustrations  and  Diagrams.     Price  6s.  net. 
(Post  free,  6s.  4d.  home ;  6s.  6d.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

THE  PLAIN  WEAVE  AND  ITS  MODIFICATIONS.  TWILL  AND  KINDRED  WEAVES. — Classifi- 
cation of  Twill  Weaves.  DIAMOND  AND  KINDRED  WEAVES.  BEDFORD  CORDS.  BACKED 
FABRICS.  FUSTIANS.  TERRY  PILE  FABRICS.  GAUZE  AND  LENO  FABRICS.  TISSUE,  LAPPET, 
AND  SWIVEL  FIGURING  ;  ALSO  ONDULK  EFFECTS.  AND  LOOPED  FABRICS. 

ART  NEEDLEWORK  AND  DESIGN,     POIN1  LACE.     A 

Manual  of  Applied  Art  for  Secondary  Schools  and  Continuation  Classes. 
By  M.  E.  WILKINSON.     Oblong  quarto.     With  22  Plates.     Bound  in 
Art  Linen.      Price  3s.  6d.  net.    (Post  free,  3s.  lOd.  ho  yc  ;  4s.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

Sampler  of  Lace  Stitches — Directions  for  working  Point  Lace,  tracing  Patterns,  etc. — 
List  of  Materials  and  Implements  required  for  working.  Plates  I.,  Simple  Lines,  Straight  and 
Slanting,  and  Designs  formed  from  them.  II.,  Patterns  formed  from  Lines  in  previous 
Lesson.  III.,  Patterns  formed  from  Lines  in  previous  Lesson.  IV.,  Simple  Curves,  and 
Designs  formed  from  them.  V.,  Simple  Leaf  form,  and  Designs  formed  from  it.  VI.,  Ele- 
mentary Geometrical  forms,  with  Definitions.  VII.,  Exercises  on  previous  Lessons.  VIII., 
Filling  of  a  Square,  Oblong  and  Circle  with  Lace  Stitches.  IX.,  Design  for  Tie  End,  based 
on  simple  Leaf  form.  X.,  Lace  Butterflies  (Freehand).  XL.  Twenty  simple  Designs  evolved 
from  Honiton  Braid  Leaf.  XII.,  Design  for  Lace  Handkerchief,  based  on  previous  Lesson. 
XIII.,  Design  for  Tea-cosy.  XIV.,  Freehand  Lace  Collar.  XV.,  Freehand  Lace  Cuff  (to 
match).  XVI.,  Application  of  Spray  from  Lesson  XI.  XVII.,  Adaptation  of  Curves  within 
a  Square,  for  Lace  Cushion  Centre.  XVIII.,  Conventional  Spray  for  corner  of  Tea-cloth. 
XIX.,  Geometrical  form  for  Rosebowl  D'Oyley,  to  be  originally  filled  in.  XX.,  Geometrical 
form  for  Flower-vase  D'Oyley,  to  be  originally  filled  in.  Each  Lesson  contains  Instructions 
for  Working,  and  application  of  new  Stitches  from  Sampler. 

HOME  LACE-MAKING.  A  Handbook  for  Teachers  and 
Pupils.  By  M.  E.  W.  MILROY.  Crown  8vo.  64  pp.  With  3  Plates 
and  9  Diagrams.  Price  Is.  net.  (Post  free,  Is.  3d.  home ;  Is.  4d. 
abroad.) 

THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  HAT  MANUFACTURING.  Lec- 
tures delivered  before  the  Hat  Manufacturers'  Association.  By  WAT- 
SON SMITH,  F.C.S.,  F.I.C.  Revised  and  Edited  by  ALBERT  SHONK. 
Crown  8vo.  132  pp.  16  Illustrations.  Price  7s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free, 
7s.  9d.  home ;  7s.  lOd.  abroad.) 

THE  TECHNICAL  TESTING  OF  YARNS  AND  TEX- 
TILE FABRICS.  With  Reference  to  Official  Specifica- 
tions. Translated  from  the  German  of  Dr.  J.  HERZFELD.  Second 
Edition.  Sixty-nine  Illustrations.  200  pp.  Demy  8vo.  Price  10s.  6d. 
net.  (Post  free,  10s.  lOd.  home  ;  11s.  abroad.) 

DECORATIVE  AND  FANCY  TEXTILE  FABRICS. 

By  R.  T.  LORD.  For  Manufacturers  and  Designers  of  Carpets,  Damask, 
Dress  and  all  Textile  Fabrics.  200  pp.  Demy  8vo.  132  Designs  and 
Illustrations.  Price7s.6d.net.  (Post  free,  7s.  lOd.  home  ;  8s.  abroad.) 


21 
THEORY    AND  PRACTICE    OF  DAMASK  WEAVING. 

By  H.  KINZER  and  K.  WALTER.     Royal  8vo.     Eighteen  Folding  Plates. 
Six  Illustrations.    Translated  from  the  German.     110pp.    Price  8s.  6d. 
net.     (Post  free,  9s.  home  ;  9s.  6d.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

The  Various  Sorts  of  Damask  Fabrics— Drill  (Ticking,  Handloom-made)— Whole 
Damask  for  Tablecloths — Damask  with  Ground-  and  Connecting-warp  Threads — furniture 
Damask — Lampas  or  Hangings — Church  Damasks — The  Manufacture  of  Whole  Damask 
— Damask  Arrangement  wkh  and  •without  Cross-Shedding — The  Altered  Cone-arrangement — 
The  Principle  of  the  Corner  Lifting  Cord— The  Roller  Principle— The  Combination  of  the 
Jacquard  with  the  so-called  Damask  Machine — The  Special  Damask  Machine — The  Combina- 
tion of  Two  Tyings. 

FAULTS  IN  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  WOOLLEN 
GOODS  AND  THEIR  PREVENTION.  By  NICOLAS 
REISER.  Translated  from  the  Second  German  Edition.  Crown  8vo. 
Sixty-three  Illustrations.  170  pp.  Price  5s.  net.  (Post  free,  5s.  4d. 
home ;  5s.  6d.  abroad.) 

*  Contents. 

Improperly  Chosen  Raw  Material  or  Improper  Mixtures — Wrong  Treatment  of  the 
Material  in  Washing,  Carbonisation,  Drying,  Dyeing  and  Spinning-rlmproper  Spacing  of  the 
Goods  in  the  Loom — Wrong  Placing  of  Colours — Wrong  Weight  or  Width  of  the  Goods 
—Breaking  of  Warp  and  Weft  Threads— Presence  of  Doubles,  Singles,  Thick,  Loose, 
and  too  Hard  Twisted  Threads  as  well  as  Tangles,  Thick  Knots  and  the  Like — Errors  in 
Cross-weaving—inequalities,  i.e.,  Bands  and  Stripes— Dirty  Borders— Defective  Selvedges- 
Holes  and  Buttons — Rubbed  Places — Creases — Spots — Loose  and  Bad  Colours — Badly  Dyed 
Selvedges — Hard  Goods — Brittle  Goods — Uneven  Goods  —  Removal  of  Bands,  Stripes, 
Creases  and  Spots. 

SPINNING  AND  WEAVING  CALCULATIONS,  especially 
relating  to  Woollens.     From  the  German  of  N.  REISER.     Thirty-four 
Illustrations.     Tables.     160  pp.     Demy  8vo.     1904.     Price  10s.  6d.  net. 
(Post  free,  10s.  lOd.  home  ;  11s.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

Calculating  the  Raw  Material— Proportion  of  Different  Grades  of  Wool  to  Furnish  a 
Mixture  at  a  Given  Price — Quantity  to  Produce  a  Given  Length — Yarn  Calculations — Yarn 
Number— Working  Calculations— Calculating  the  Reed  Count— Cost  of  Weaving,  etc. 

WATERPROOFING  OF  FABRICS.  By  Dr.  S.  MIERZINSKI. 
Crown  8vo.  104  pp.  29  Illus.  Price  5s.  net.  (Post  free,  5s.  3d.  home  ; 
5s.  4d.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Introduction  — Preliminary  Treatment  of  the  Fabric  — Waterproofing  with  Acetate  of 
Alumina — Impregnation  of  the  Fabric — Drying — Waterproofing  with  Paraffin — Waterproofing 
with  Ammonium  Cuprate  — Waterproofing  with  Metallic  Oxides  — Coloured  Waterproof 
Fabrics — Waterproofing  with  Gelatine,  Tannin,  Caseinate  of  Lime  and  other  Bodies — Manu- 
facture of  Tarpaulin— British  Waterproofing  Patents— Index. 

HOW  TO  MAKE  A  WOOLLEN  MILL  PAY.  By  JOHN 
MACKIE.  Crown  8vo.  76  pp.  Price  3s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  3s.  9d. 
home  ;  3s.  lOd.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Blends,  Piles,  or  Mixtures  of  Clean  Scoured  Wools— Dyed  Wool  Book— The  Order  Book 
— Pattern  Duplicate  Books — Management  and  Oversight — Constant  Inspection  of  Mill  De- 
partments— Importance  of  Delivering  Goods  to  Time,  Shade,  Strength,  etc. — Plums. 

(For  "  Textile  Soaps  and  Oils  "  see  p.  7.) 

Dyeing,     Colour     Printing, 
Matching  and  Dye-stuffs. 

THE  COLOUR  PRINTING  OF  CARPET  YARNS.   Manual 
for    Colour   Chemists   and   Textile    Printers.      By   DAVID    PATERSON, 
F.C.S.     Seventeen  Illustrations.      136  pp.      Demy  8vo.     Price  7s.  6d. 
net.     (Post  free,  7s.  lOd.  home  ;  8s.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

Structure  and  Constitution  of  Wool  Fibre— Yarn  Scouring— Scouring  Materials— Water  for 
Scouring — Bleaching  Carpet  Yarns — Colour  Making  for  Yarn  Printing — Colour  Printing 
Pastes— Colour  Recipes  for  Yarn  Printing— Science  of  Colour  Mixing— Matching  of  Colours 
—"Hank"  Printing— Printing  Tapestry  Carpet  Yarns— Yarn  Printing— Steaming  Printed 
Yarns— Washing  of  Steamed  Yarns — Aniline  Colours  Suitable  for  Yarn  Printing — Glossary  of 
Dyes  and  Dye-wares  used  in  Wood  Yarn  Printing — Appendix. 


22 

THE  SCIENCE  OP  COLOUR  MIXING.  A  Manual  in- 
tended for  the  use  of  Dyers,  Calico  Printers  and  Colour  Chemists.  By 
DAVID  PATERSON,  F.C.S.  Forty-one  Illustrations,  Five  Coloured  Plates, 
and  Four  Plates  showing:  Eleven  Dyed  Specimens  of  Fabrics.  132 

pp.  Demy  8vo.  Price  7s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  7s.  lOd.  home  ;  8s. 
abroad.) 

Contents. 

Colour  a  Sensation ;  Colours  of  Illuminated  Bodies ;  Colours  of  Opaque  and  Transparent 
Bodies;  Surface  Colour — Analysis  of  Light;  Spectrum;  Homogeneous  Colours;  Ready 
Method  of  Obtaining  a  Spectrum — Examination  of  Solar  Spectrum ;  The  Spectroscope  and 
Its  Construction  ;  Colourists'  Use  of  the  Spectroscope — Colour  by  Absorption  ;  Solutions  and 
Dyed  Fabrics;  Dichroic  Coloured  Fabrics  in  Gaslight — Colour  Primaries  of  the  Scientist 
versus  the  Dyer  and  Artist;  Colour  Mixing  by  Rotation  and  Lye  Dyeing;  Hue,  Purity, 
Brightness ;  Tints ;  Shades,  Scales,  Tones,  Sad  and  Sombre  Colours— Colour  Mixing ;  Pure 
and  Impure  Greens,  Orange  and  Violets;  Large  Variety  of  Shades  from  few  Colours;  Con- 
sideration of  the  Practical  Primaries :  Red,  Yellow  and  Blue — Secondary  Colours ;  Nomen- 
clature of  Violet  and  Purple  Group ;  Tints  and  Shades  of  Violet ;  Changes  in  Artificial  Light 
— Tertiary  Shades ;  Broken  Hues;  Absorption  Spectra  of  Tertiary  Shades — Appendix:  Four 
Plates  with  Dyed  Specimens  Illustrating  Text— Index.  • 

DYERS'  MATERIALS :  An  Introduction  to  the  Examination, 
Evaluation  and  Application  of  the  most  important  Substances  used  in 
Dyeing,  Printing,  Bleaching  and  Finishing.  By  PAUL  HEERMAN,  Ph.D. 
Translated  from  the  German  by  A.  C.  WRIGHT,  M.A.  (Oxon.),  B.Sc. 
(Lond.).  Twenty-four  Illustrations.  Crown  8vo.  150  pp.  Price  5s. 
net.  (Post  free,  5s.  4d.  home  ;  5s.  6d.  abroad.) 

COLOUR  MATCHING  ON  TEXTILES.  A  Manual  in- 
tended for  the  use  of  Students  of  Colour  Chemistry,  Dyeing  and 
Textile  Printing.  By  DAVID  PATERSON,  F.C.S.  Coloured  Frontis- 
piece. Twenty-nine  Illustrations  and  Fourteen  Specimens  Of  Dyed 
Fabrics.  Demy  8vo.  132  pp.  Price  7s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  7s.  lOd. 
home  ;  8s.  abroad.) 

COLOUR:  A  HANDBOOK  OP  THE  THEORY  OF 
COLOUR.  By  GEORGE  H.  HURST,  F.C.S.  With  Ten 
Coloured  Plates  and  Seventy-two  Illustrations.  160  pp.  Demy  8vo. 
Price  7s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  7s.  lOd.  home  ;  8s.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Colour  and  Its  Production — Cause  of  Colour  in  Coloured  Bodies — Colour  Pheno= 
cnena  and  Theories— The  Physiology  of  Light— Contrast— Colour  in  Decoration  and 
Design — Measurement  of  Colour. 

Reissue  of 

THE  ART  OF  DYEING  WOOL,  SILK   AND    COTTON. 

Translated  from  the  French  of  M.  HELLOT,  M.  MACQUER  and  M.  LE 
PILEUR  D'APLIGNY.  First  Published  in  English  in  1789.  Six  Plates. 
Demy  8vo.  446  pp.  Price  5s.  net.  (Post  free,  5s.  6d.  home;  6s. 

abroad'>  Contents. 

Part  I.,  The  Art  of  Dyeing  Wool  and  Woollen  Cloth,  Stuffs,  Yarn,  Worsted,  etc. 
Part  II.,  The  Art  of  Dyeing  Silk.  Part  III.,  The  Art  of  Dyeing  Cotton  and  Linen 
Thread,  together  with  the  Method  of  Stamping  Silks,  Cottons,  etc. 

THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  DYE-STUFFS.  By  Dr.  GEORG  VON 
GEORGIEVICS.  Translated  from  the  Second  German  Edition.  412  pp. 
Demy  8vo.  PricelOs.6d.net.  (Post  free,  11s.  home  ;  11s.  6d.  abroad.) 

THE  DYEING  OF  COTTON  FABRICS:  A  Practical 
Handbook  for  the  Dyer  and  Student.  By  FRANKLIN  BEECH,  Practical 
Colourist  and  Chemist.  272  pp.  Forty-four  Illustrations  of  Bleaching 
and  Dyeing  Machinery.  Demy  8vo.  Price  7s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free, 
7s.  lOd.  home ;  8s.  abroad.) 

THE  DYEING  OF  WOOLLEN  FABRICS.  By  FRANKLIN 
BEECH,  Practical  Colourist  and  Chemist.  Thirty-three  Illustrations. 
Demy  8vo.  228  pp.  Price  7s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  7s.  lOd.  home  ; 
8s.  abroad.) 


23 

Bleaching  and  Bleaching 
Agents. 

A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  BLEACHING  OP 
LINEN  AND  COTTON  YARN   AND   FABRICS.     By 

L.  TAILFER,  Chemical  and  Mechanical  Engineer.  Translated  from  the 
French  by  JOHN  GEDDES  MC!NTOSH.  Demy  8vo.  303  pp.  Twenty 
Illus.  Price  12s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  13s.  home;  13s.  6d.  abroad.) 

MODERN  BLEACHING  AGENTS  AND  DETERGENTS. 

By  Professor  MAX  BOTTLER.  Translated  from  the  German.  Crown 
8vo.  16  Illustrations.  160  pages.  Price  5s.  net.  (Post  tree,  5s.  3d. 
home  ;  5s.  6d.  abroad.)  [Just  published. 

Contents. 

Part  I.,  Bleaching  Agents.  Old  and  New  Bleaching  Methods  and  Bleaching 
Agents. — Bleaching  Agents  for  Wool — Bleaching  with  Permanganate — Perborates — Acid 
Sodium  Percarbonate — Bleaching  Agents  for  Silk — Bleaching  Powder  and  Alkali  Hypoch- 
lorites — Bleaching  Processes — Bleaching  Linen — Bleaching  with  Ozone — Bleaching  Straw 
and  Leather — Discharging  Colours — Bleaching  Jute  and  other  Vegetable  Fibres — Bleaching 
Various  Substances— Electrical  Bleaching  Processes.  Sodium  Peroxide.— Properties- 
Dissolving  Sodium  Peroxide — Preparing  the  Bleaching  Liquor— Compressed  Sodium  Peroxide 
— Sodium  Peroxide  in  Bleaching — Cleaning  Materials  to  be  Bleached — Testing  the  Bleaching 
Liquor — Bleaching  Kier — Charging  the  Kier  with  Bleaching  Liquor — Bleaching  Woollen  and 
Half-Wool  Goods — Preparing  the  Bleaching  Liquor — Drying  the  Goods — Magnesium  Sulphate 
in  Bleaching  Liquor — Bleaching  Silk — Bleaching  Linen,  Cotton,  Jute  and  Ramie  Goods — 
Production  of  Peroxides — Bleaching  Feathers — Sodium  Peroxide  in  Washing  Powder — 
Barium  Peroxide — Bleaching  Silk  with  Barium  Peroxide.  Perborates. — Salts  of  Perboric 
Acid — Properties  of  Perborates — Ammonium  Perborates — Sodium  Perborates — Perborax — 
Merck's  Sodium  Perborate— Sapozon — Testing  Sodium  Perborate.  Ozone. — Formation  of 
Ozone — Ozone  Generators — Chemical  Production  of  Ozone — Properties  of  Ozone — Employ- 
ment of  Ozone  in  Bleaching.  Sodium  Bisulphite  and  Hydrosulphurous  Acid. — Bleaching 
with  Sulphur  Dioxide — Bleaching  Wool  with  Hydrosulphurous  Acid — Sodium  Hydrosulphite 
— Properties  of  Sodium  Bisulphite — Bleaching  Processes — Bleaching  Manila  Hemp — After- 
treatment  with  Bisulphite — Bleaching  Straw — Bleaching  Leather.  Discharging  Colour  from 
Textile  Fabrics  with  Hydrosulphurous  Acid. — Preparing  the  Discharge — Discharging 
Colour  from  Shoddy  and  Dyed  Fabrics — Stable  Hydrosulphite — Method  of  Using  Hydrosul- 
phite—  Eradite — Cassella's  Hyraldite — Discharging  with  Hyraldite — Increasing  the  Dis- 
charging Effect — Stable  Hydrosulphites.  Permanganate. — Bleaching  with  Permanganate 
— Action  of  Permanganate — Bleaching  Wool  or  Silk — Addition  of  Magnesium  Sulphate  to 
the  Bleaching  Liquor — Strength  of  Permanganate  Solution — New  Process  for  Bleaching  Jute 
— Bleaching  Skins — Bleaching  Straw — Bleaching  Ivory.  Hydrogen  Peroxide. — Constitution 
and  Properties — Preparation — Crystalline  Hydrogen  Peroxide — Properties  of  Hydrogen 
Peroxide  Solutions — Stability — Commercial  Hydrogen  Peroxide  Solutions — Decomposition 
of  Hydrogen  Peroxide — Purity  of  Hydrogen  Peroxide — Storage  Vessels — Care  in  Handling 
— Instability  of  Solutions — Reagent  for  Hydrogen  Peroxide— Valuing  Hydrogen  Peroxide 
Solutions — Testing  Hydrogen  Peroxide — Bleaching  Wool  with  Hydrogen  Peroxide — Pre- 
liminary Treatment — Bleaching  Bath — After  Treatment — Bleaching  Silk  with  Hydrogen 
Peroxide — Bluing  before  Bleaching — Bleaching  Cotton  with  Hydrogen  Peroxide — Bleaching 
Linens  with  Hydrogen  Peroxide — Bleaching  Jute  with  Hydrogen  Peroxide — Bleaching  Various 
Vegetable  Fibres  with  Hydrogen  Peroxide — Bleaching  Straw,  Wood,  etc.,  with  Hydrogen 
Peroxide — Bleaching  Leather  with  Hydrogen  Peroxides-Bleaching  Ivory,  Horn,  Bones  and 
Similar  Articles — Bleaching  Hair — Bleaching  Sponges  with  Hydrogen  Peroxide.  Bleaching 
Fats,  Oils,  Wax  and  Paraffin.— New  Process  for  Bleaching  Fats  and  Oils— Bleaching  Wax 
—Bleaching  Soap— Decrolin  and  Blankite  for  Bleaching  Soap— Bleaching  Glue.  Solid,  Stable 
Calcium  Hypochlorite  and  Bleaching  Soda. — Stable  Calcium  Hypochlorite — Bleaching 
Soda.  Electric  Bleaching.— Electrolytic  Bleaching  Lye— Judging  the  Utility  of  Electric 
Bleaching  Plant — Bleaching  Experiment  with  Electrolysed  Sodium  Chloride  Solution — 
Electrolytic  Decomposition  of  Sodium  Chloride — Observations  of  Forster  and  Miiller — Types 
of  Electrolyser—  Electrolytic  Bleach— Schuckert  Plant— Schoop's  Electrolytic  Bleaching 
Apparatus — Kellner  Bleaching  Apparatus,  Construction — Method  of  Working — Mounting  the 
Apparatus — Determining  the  Bleaching  Power  of  Electrolytic  Liquors,  Volumetric  Method — 
Bleaching  with  Electrolytic  Bleaching  Liquor. 

Part  II.,  Detergents. — Behaviour  of  Various  Fabrics  in  the  Presence  of  Chemical  Re- 
agents—Methods of  Removing  Stains— Chemical  Cleaning  and  Detergents.  Benzine  Soaps. 
— Removing  Stains  with  Benzine  Soap  and  its  Solutions — Antibenzine  Pyrine,  or  Richterol. 
Extractive  Detergents  and  Detergent  Mixtures.  Carbon  Tetrachloride.— Properties. 
Aceto-Oxalic  Acid  as  a  Detergent ;  Special  Methods  of  Removing  Stains.  Bleaching 
Processes  Used  in  Chemical  Cleaning.— Bleaching  with  Potassium  Permanganate- 
Reducing  Effect  of  Sulphur  Dioxide — Reduction  with  Hydrogen  Peroxide — Reduction  with 
Hydrosulphurous  Acid — Seyda's  Reduction  Process — Combined  Method  of  Removing  Stains — 
Hyraldite  as  a  Detergent  and  Bleaching  Agent.  Hydrogen  Peroxide  as  a  Detergent.— 
Behaviour  of  Hydrogen  Peroxide  toward  Coloured  Fabrics.  Oxygen  as  a  Detergent-  — 


24 
Contents  of  "  Modern  Bleaching:  Agents  and  Detergents  "— 

continued. 

Behaviour  of  Oxygenol  toward  Dyed  Fabrics.  Sodium  Peroxide  as  a  Detergent. — Sodium 
Peroxide  Soap.  Sundry  New  Detergents  and  Cleansing  Agents. — Tetrapol — Lavado — 
Novol — Weiss's  Benzine  Washing  Preparation — Hexol — Steinberg's  Detergent  Oil — Ozonite — 
Ozonal — Quillola — Gruner's  Washing  Powder—  Eureka  Washing  Powder — Detergent  Soaps 
that  Liberate  Oxygen — Klein's  Detergent  Soap— Detergent  for  Sensitive  Colours— Poltzow's 
Detergent  Soap  —  Wolzendorff's  Cyanide  and  Photographer's  Ink  —  Detergent  Liquids — 
Hummel's  Detergent  Liquid — Detergent  Paste — Blanchissine — Henkel's  Persil — Reinol,  Triol, 
Tetra-Isol,  Benzin-Isol,  Terpin-Isol,  Isobenzine  Soap  and  Iso  Soap. 

Cotton  Spinning  and  Combing. 

COTTON  SPINNING  (First  Year).  By  THOMAS  THORNLEY, 
Spinning  Master,  Bolton  Technical  School.  160pp.  Eighty-four  Illus- 
trations. Crown  8vo.  Second  Impression.  Price  3s.  net.  (Post  free, 
3s.  4d.  home  ;  3s.  6d.  abroad.) 

COTTON  SPINNING  (Intermediate,  or  Second  Year).  By 
THOMAS  THORNLEY.  Second  Impression.  180  pp.  Seventy  Illustra- 
tions. Crown  8vo.  Price  5s.  net.  (Post  free,  5s.  4d.  home  ;  5s.  6d. 
abroad.) 

COTTON  SPINNING  (Honours,  or  Third  Year).  By  THOMAS 
THORNLEY.  216  pp.  Seventy-four  Illustrations.  Crown  8vo.  Second 
Edition.  Price  5s.  net.  (Post  free,  5s.  4d.  home ;  5s.  6d.  abroad.) 

COTTON  COMBING  MACHINES.  By  THOS.  THORNLEY, 
Spinning  Master,  Technical  School,  Bolton.  Demy  8vo.  117  Illustra- 
tions. 300  pp.  Price  7s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  8s.  home ;  8s.  6d.  abroad.) 

Flax,  Hemp  and  Jute  Spinning. 

MODERN  FLAX,  HEMP  AND  JUTE  SPINNING  AND 
TWISTING.  A  Practical  Handbook  for  the  use  of  Flax, 
Hemp  and  Jute  Spinners,  Thread,  Twine  and  Rope  Makers.  By 
HEKBERT  R.  CARTER,  Mill  Manager,  Textile  Expert  and  Engineer, 
Examiner  in  Flax  Spinning  to  the  City  and  Guilds  of  London 
Institute.  Demy  8vo.  1907.  With  92  Illustrations.  200  pp.  Price 
7s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  7s.  9d.  home ;  8s.  abroad.) 

FIBRES  USED  IN  TEXTILE  AND  ALLIED  INDUS- 
TRIES. By  C.  AINSWORTH  MITCHELL,  B.A.  (Oxon.),  F.I.C., 
and  R.  M.  PRIDEAUX  F.I.C.  With  66  Illustrations  specially  drawn 
direct  from  the  Fibres.  Demy  8vo.  200  pp.  Price  7s.  6d.  net. 
(Post  free,  7s.  9d.  home  ;  8s.  abroad.)  [J™st  published. 

Contents. 

Classification,  General  Characteristics,  and  Microscopical  Examination  of  Fibres — Stegmata 
—Chemical  Examination— Ultimate  Fibres— Methyl  Value— Moisture  in  Fibres.  Wool.— 
Nature  of  Wool — Commercial  Varieties — Characteristics  of  Good  Wool — Merino — Micro- 
scopical Appearance — Mould  in  Wool — Felting  Property — Curl  of  Wool — Chemical  Composi- 
tion— Action  of  Reagents  on  Wool — Chlorinised  Wool — Detection  of  Dyed  Fibres  in  Wool- 
Conditioning  of  Wool.  Vicuna— Camel  Hair— Alpaca— Llama  Hair— Mohair— Cashmere 
—Goats'  Hair— Cow  Hair— Horse  Hair— Deer  Hair— Reindeer  Hair— Rabbits'  Hair- 
Cats'  Hair— Dogs'  Hair— Kangaroos'  Hair— Human  Hair.  Silk.— Origin  of  Silk- 
Reeling— Waste  Silk— History— Commercial  Varieties  of  Thread— Size  of  Yarns— Wild  Silks 
— Microscopical  Characteristics — Colour  of  Silk — Size  of  Fibres — Strength  and  Elasticity — 
Specific  Gravity — Chemical  Composition — Fibroin — Sericin — Hydrolysis  of  Silk  Proteins — 
Action  of  Chemical  Agents — Absorption  of  Tannin — Weighting — Differentiation  and  Separation 
from  other  Fibres.  Cotton. —Origin — History — Commercial  Varieties — Structure  of  the 
Fibre— Cell  Walls— Dimensions  of  Fibre— Chemical  Composition— Cellulose— Action  of 
Reagents — Nitrated  Cotton — Examination  of  Bleached  Fabrics — Absorption  of  Tannin — 
Absorption  of  Gases — Absorption  of  Dyestuffs — "  Animalizing  "  of  Cotton — Sized  Cotton — 
Polished  Cotton — Mould  in  Cotton — Waterproofed  Cotton.  Mercerised  Cotton. — History — 
Structural  Alteration  of  Fibres — Affinity  for  Dyestuffs — Chemical  Changes  in  Mercerisation — 
Effect  upon  Strength  of  Fibre — Measurement  of  Shrinkage — Reactions  and  Tests  for  Mercer- 
ised Cotton— Dyestuff  Tests,  Artificial  Silks.— Historical— Outline  of  Processes— Strength 


25 

aad  Elasticity — Covering  Power — Specific  Gravity — Water — Microscopical  Appearance — Re- 
actions and  Chemical  Tests.  Linen  and  Ramie.— Linen— Source— Varieties  of  Commercial 
Flax — Retting  of  Flax — Lustrous  Linen — Use  of  Linen  as  a  Textile — Characteristics  of  the 
Fibre— Structure— Action  of  Reagents— Physical  Properties —Composition —Flax  Wax. 
Ramie  —  Source  —  Preparation  —  History  —  Properties — Composition.  Jute  and  other 
Fibres. — Jute — Source — Commercial  Varieties — Properties — Microscopical  Appearance — 
Chemical  Composition — The  Cellulose  of  Jute — Lignocelluloses — Chemical  Reactions.  Hemp. 
— Source — History — Varieties — Properties — Microscopical  Appearance — Chemical  Composi- 
tion. Sisal  Hemp. — Properties — Microscopical  Characteristics — Chemical  Composition. 
Pita  Fibre.  Manila  Hemp. — Characteristics — Musa  Paradisiaca  Fibre.  Banana  Fibre. 
Andansonia  Fibre.— Differentiation  of  Jute  :  Manila  and  Andansonia.  Sanseviera  Fibre 
(Bowstring  Hemp). — Source.  Sunn  Hemp — Qambo  Hemp — New  Zealand  Flax — 
Mauritius  Hemp— Yercum  Fibre— Pine  Apple  Fibre.  Brush  Fibres  — Cocoanut  Fibre 
(Coir)  —  Characteristics  —  Ixtle  Fibre  — Piassava — Brazilian  Piassava — African  Piassava. 
Vegetable  Downs  and  Upholstery  Fibres.— Bombax  Cottons— Kapok— Ochroma  Down— 
Kumbi  or  Galgal — Vegetable  Silk — Asclepias  Cotton — Calotropis  Down — Beaumantia  Down — 
Other  Vegetable  Silks— Vegetable  Wool— Tillaridsia  Fibre— Vegetable  Horsehair.  Index. 

Collieries  and  Mines. 

RECOVERY  WORK  AFTER  PIT  FIRES.  By  ROBERT 
LAMPRECHT,  Mining  Engineer  and  Manager.  Translated  from  the 
German.  Illustrated  by  Six  large  Plates,  containing  Seventy-six 
Illustrations.  175  pp.,  demy  8vo.  Price  10s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free, 
10s.  lOd.  home;  11s.  abroad.) 

VENTILATION  IN  MINES.  By  ROBERT  WABNER,  Mining 
Engineer.  Translated  from  the  German.  Royal  8vo.  Thirty  Plates 
and  Twenty-two  Illustrations.  240  pp.  Price  10s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free, 
11s.  home  ;  11s.  3d.  abroad.) 

HAULAGE    AND   WINDING    APPLIANCES   USED  IN 
MINES.     By   CARL   VOLK.     Translated  from  the  German. 
Royal  8vo.     With    Six  Plates   and   148  Illustrations.     150  pp.     Price 
8s.  6d.  net.     (Post  free,  9s.  home ;  9o.  3d.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

Haulage  Appliances — Ropes — Haulage  Tubs  and  Tracks — Cages  and  Winding  Appliances — 
Winding  Engines  for  Vertical  Shafts— Winding  without  Hopes— Haulage  in  Levels  and 
Inclines — The  Working  of  Underground  Engines — Machinery  for  Downhill  Haulage. 

THE  ELECTRICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  COLLIERIES.  By 

W.  GALLOWAY  DUNCAN,  Electrical  and  Mechanical  Engineer,  Member 
of  the  Institution  of  Mining  Engineers,  Head  of  the  Government  School 
of  Engineering,  Dacca,  India  ;  and  DAVID  PENMAN,  Certificated  Colliery 
Manager,  Lecturer  in  Mining  to  Fife  County  Committee.  Demy  8vo. 
310  pp.  155  Illustrations  and  Diagrams.  Price  10s.  6d.  net.  (Post 
free,  11s.  home  ;  11s.  3d.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

General  Principles,  Magnetism,  Units,  Cells,  etc. — Dynamos  and  Motors — Trans= 
mission  and  Distribution  of  Power— Prime  Movers— Lighting-  by  Electricity— Initial 
Outlay  and  Working  Cost  of  Electrical  Installations— Electricity  Applied  to  Coal- 
cutting— Electric  Haulage,  Winding,  and  Locomotives— Electric  Pumps  and  Pump= 
ing— Electric= Power  Drills  and  Underground  Coal  Conveyers— Typical  Colliery 
Electrical  Installations— Miscellaneous  Applications  of  the  Electric  Current— Com- 
parison of  the  Different  Modes  of  Transmitting  Power— Dangers  Occurring  from  the 
Use  of  Electricity  in  Colleries— APPENDIX  :  Questions  suitable  for  students  preparing  for 
colliery  managers'  examinations — INDEX. 

Dental  Metallurgy. 

DENTAL  METALLURGY  :  MANUAL  FOR  STUDENTS 
AND  DENTISTS.  By  A.  B.  GRIFFITHS,  Ph.D.  Demy 
8vo.  Thirty-six  Illustrations.  200  pp.  Price  7s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free, 
7s.  lOd.  home ;  8s.  abroad.) 

Contents . 

Introduction — Physical  Properties  of  the  Metals — Action  of  Certain  Agents  on  Metals — 
Alloys— Action  of  Oral  Bacteria  on  Allots— Theory  and  Varieties  of  Blowpipes— Fluxes- 
Furnaces  and  Appliances — Heat  and  Temperature — Gold — Mercury — Silver — Iron — Copper — 
Zinc — Magnesium — Cadmium — Tin — Lead  —  Aluminium  —  Antimony — Bismuth  —  Palladium — 
Platinum — Iridium — Nickel — Practical  Work — Weights  and  Measures. 


26 

Engineering,    Smoke   Prevention 
and  Metallurgy. 

THE    PREVENTION    OF    SMOKE.      Combined    with   the 

Economical  Combustion  of  Fuel.      By  W.   C.    POPPLEWELL,    M.Sc., 

A.M.Inst.,C.E.,  Consulting  Engineer.     Forty-six  Illustrations.     190pp. 

Demy  8vo.     Price  7s.  6d.  net.     (Post  free,  7s.  lOd.  home  ;  8s.  3d.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Fuel  and  Combustion  —  Hand  Firing  in  Boiler  Furnaces  —  Stoking  by  Mechanical  Means  — 
Powdered  Fuel—  Gaseous  Fuel—  Efficiency  and  Smoke  Tests  of  Boilers—  Some  Standard 
Smoke  Trials  —  The  Legal  Aspect  of  the  Smoke  Question  —  The  Best  Means  to  be  adopted  for 
the  Prevention  of  Smoke  —  Index. 

GAS  AND  COAL  DUST  FIRING.  A  Critical  Review  of 
the  Various  Appliances  Patented  in  Germany  for  this  purpose  since 
1885.  By  ALBERT  PUTSCH.  130  pp.  Demy  8vo.  Translated  from  the 
German.  With  103  Illustrations.  Price  5s.  net.  (Post  free,  5s.  4d. 
home  ;  5s.  6d.  abroad.  ) 

Contents. 

Generators  —  Generators  Employing  Steam  —  Stirring  and  Feed  Regulating  Appliances  — 
Direct  Generators  —  Burners  —  Regenerators  and  Recuperators  —  Glass  Smelting  Furnaces  — 
Metallurgical  Furnaces  —  Pottery  Furnace  —  Coal  Dust  Firing  —  Index. 

THE  HARDENING  AND  TEMPERING  OP  STEEL 
IN  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE.  By  FRIDOLIN  REISER. 
Translated  from  the  German  of  the  Third  Edition.  Crown  8vo. 
120  pp.  Price  5s.  net.  (Post  free,  5s.  3d.  home;  5s.  4d.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Steel—  Chemical  and  Physical  Properties  of  Steel,  and  their  Casual  Connection- 
Classification  of  Steel  according  to  Use—  Testing  the  Quality  of  Steel  —  Steel- 
Hardening—  Investigation  of  the  Causes  of  Failure  in  Hardening  —  Regeneration  of 
Steel  Spoilt  in  the  Furnace—  Welding  Steel—  Index. 

SIDEROLOGY:  THE  SCIENCE  OF  IRON  (The  Con- 
stitution  of  Iron  Alloys  and  Slags).  Translated  from  German  of 
HANNS  FREIHERR  v.  JUPTNER.  350  pp.  Demy  8vo.  Eleven  Plates 
and  Ten  Illustrations.  Price  10s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  11s.  home; 
11s.  6d.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

The  Theory  of  Solution.—  Solutions—  Molten  Alloys—  Varieties  of  Solutions—  Osmotic 
Pressure  —  Relation  between  Osmotic  Pressure  and  other  Properties  of  Solutions  —  Osmotic 
Pressure  and  Molecular  Weight  of  the  Dissolved  Substance  —  Solutions  of  Gases  —  Solid  Solu- 
tions —  Solubility  —  Diffusion  —  Electrical  Conductivity  —  Constitution  of  Electrolytes  and  Metals 
—  Thermal  Expansion.  Micrography.  —  Microstructure  —  The  Micrographic  Constituents  of 
Iron  —  Relation  between  Micrographical  Composition,  Carbon-Content,  and  Thermal  Treat- 
ment of  Iron  Alloys—  The  Microstructure  of  Slags.  Chemical  Composition  of  the  Alloys 
of  Iron.  —  Constituents  of  Iron  Alloys  —  Carbon  —  Constituents  of  the  Iron  Alloys,  Carbon  — 
Opinions  and  Researches  on  Combined  Carbon  —  Opinions  and  Researches  on  Combined 
Carbon  —  Applying  the  Curves  of  Solution  deduced  from  the  Curves  of  Recalescence  to  the  De- 
termination of  the  Chemical  Composition  of  the  Carbon  present  in  Iron  Alloys  —  The  Constitu- 


ents of  Iron  —  Iron  —  The  Constituents  of  Iron  Alloys  —  Manganese  —  Remaining  Constituents  of 

l  Composition  of  Slag.—  Silicate  Slags- 
Calculating  the  Composition  of  Silicate   Slags  —  Phosphate  Slags  —  Oxide  Slags  —  Appendix  — 


Iron  Alloys—  A  Silicon—  Gases.      The  Chemical  Composition  of  Slag.—  Silicate  Sla 

Calcul 

Index. 

EVAPORATING,  CONDENSING  AND  COOLING  AP- 
PARATUS. Explanations,  Formulas  and  Tables  for  Use 
in  Practice.  By  E.  HAUSBRAND,  Engineer.  Translated  by  A.  C. 
WRIGHT,  M.A.  (Oxon.),  B.Sc.  (Lond.).  With  Twenty-one  Illustra- 
tions and  Seventy-six  Tables.  400  pp.  Demy  8vo.  Price  10s.  6d.  net. 
(Post  free,  11s.  home;  11s.  6d.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

^Coefficient  of  Transmission  of  Heat,  k/,  and  the  Mean  Temperature  Difference,  0/in— 
Parallel  and  Opposite  Currents—  Apparatus  for  Heating  with  Direct  Fire—  The  Injection  of 
Saturated  Steam  —  Superheated  Steam  —  Evaporation  by  Means  of  Hot  Liquids  —  The  Trans- 
ference of  Heat  in  General,  and  Transference  by  means  of  Saturated  Steam  in  Particular 
—The  Transference  of  Heat  from  Saturated  Steam  in  Pipes  (Coils)  and  Double  Bottoms 
—  Evaporation  in  a  Vacuum  —  The  Multiple-effect  Evaporator  —  Multiple-effect  Evaporators 


27 

from  which  Extra  Steam  is  Taken  —  The  Weight  of  Water  which  must  be  Evaporated  from 
100  Kilos,  of  Liquor  in  order  its  Original  Percentage  of  Dry  Materials  from  1-25  per  cent 
up  to  20-70  per  cent.  —  The  Relative  Proportion  of  the  Heating  Surfaces  in  the  Elements 
of  the  Multiple  Evaporator  and  their  Actual  Dimensions  —  The  Pressure  Exerted  by  Currents 
of  Steam  and  Gas  upon  Floating  Drops  of  Water  —  The  Motion  of  Floating  Drops  of  Water 
upon  which  Press  Currents  of  Steam—  The  Splashing  of  Evaporating  Liquids—  The  Diameter 
of  Pipes  for  Steam,  Alcohol,  Vapour  and  Air  —  The  Diameter  of  Water  Pipes  —  The  Loss 
of  Heat  from  Apparatus  and  Pipes  to  the  Surrounding  Air,  and  Means  for  Preventing 
the  Loss  —  Condensers  —  Heating  Liquids  by  Means  of  Steam  —  The  Cooling  of  Liquids  — 
The  Volumes  to  be  Exhausted  from  Condensers  by  the  Air-pumps  —  A  Few  Remarks  on  Air- 
pumps  and  the  Vacua  they  Produce  —  The  Volumetric  Efficiency  of  Air-pumps  —  The  Volumes 
of  Air  which  must  be  Exhausted  from  a  Vessel  in  order  to  Reduce  its  Original  Pressure  to  a 
Certain  Lower  Pressure  —  Index. 

Sanitary  Plumbing,  Electric 
Wiring,    Metal   Work,    etc. 

EXTERNAL  PLUMBING  WORK.  A  Treatise  on  Lead 
Work  for  Roofs.  By  JOHN  W.  HART,  R.P.C.  180  Illustrations.  272 
pp.  Demy  8vo.  Second  Edition  Revised.  Price  7s.  6d.  net.  (Post 
free,  7s.  lOd.  home  ;  8s.  abroad.) 

HINTS  TO  PLUMBERS  ON  JOINT  WIPING,  PIPE 
BENDING  AND  LEAD  BURNING.  Third  Edition, 
Revised  and  Corrected.  By  JOHN  W.  HART,  R.P.C.  184  Illustrations. 
313  pp.  DemySvo.  Price  7s.  6d.net.  (Post  free,  8s.  home;  8s.  6d. 
abroad.) 

Contents. 

Pipe  Bending  —  Pipe  Bending  (continued)  —  Pipe  Bending  (continued)  —  Square  Pipe 
Bendings  —  Half-circular  Elbows  —  Curved  Bends  on  Square  Pipe  —  Bossed  Bends  —  Curved 
Plinth  Bends  —  Rain-water  Shoes  on  Square  Pipe  —  Curved  and  Angle  Bends  —  Square  Pipe 
Fixings  —  Joint-wiping  —  Substitutes  for  Wiped  Joints  —  Preparing  Wiped  Joints  —  Joint  Fixings 

—  Plumbing  Irons  —  Joint  Fixings  —  Use  of  "Touch"  in  Soldering  —  Underhand  Joints  —  Blown 
and   Copper   Bit    Joints  —  Branch   Joints  —  Branch   Joints   (continued)  —  Block  Joints  —  Block 
Joints  (continued)  —  Block    Fixings  —  Astragal  Joints  —  Pipe  Fixings  —  Large  Branch  Joints  — 
Large  Underhand  Joints  —  Solders  —  Autogenous  Soldering  or  Lead   Burning  —  Index. 

SANITARY  PLUMBING  AND  DRAINAGE.  By  JOHN 
W.  HART.  Demy  8vo.  With  208  Illustrations.  250  pp.  1904.  Price 
7s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  7s.  lOd.  home  ;  8s.  abroad.) 

ELECTRIC  WIRING  AND  FITTING  FOR  PLUMBERS 
AND  GASFITTERS.  By  SYDNEY  F.WALKER,  R.N.,  M.I.E.E., 
M.I.Min.E.,  A.M.Inst.C.E.,  etc.,  etc.  Crown  8vo.  150  pp.  With  Illus- 
trations and  Tables.  Price  5s.  net.  (Post  free,  5s.  3d.  home  ;  5s.  6d. 
abroad.) 

Contents. 

Chapter  I.,  Electrical  Terms  Used.—  Pressure  and  Current—  The  Volt—  Ampere- 
Electrical  Resistance  —  Earth—  Continuous  and  Alternating  Currents  —  The  Electric  Circuit  — 
Leakage  —  Heating  of  Conductors  —  Size  and  Forms  of  Conductors  —  The  Kilowatt  —  Loss  of 
Pressure  —  Arrangement  of  Conductors  —  Looping  In  —  The  Three  Wire  System  —  Switches  — 
Fuses—  Circuit—  Breakers.  II.,  The  Insulation  of  Wires,  Their  Protection,  Fixing:,  etc. 

—  Conductors  Insulated  with    Paper  and  Similar  Materials  —  Sparking  between  Conductors 

—  Diahte  Insulation  —  Flexible  Cords  —  Concentric  Conductors  —  Twin  Conductors  —  Three-Core 
Cables  —  Fireproof  Insulation  for  Conductors  —  Jointing  —  T  Joints  —  Covering  T  Joints  in  Vul- 
canized Rubber  Cables.    III.,  Fixing-  the  Wiring  and  Cables.—  Laying  Out  the  Route—  The 
Protection  of  the  Wires  and  Cables  —  Wood  Casing  —  Metallic  Conduits  —  Non-Metallic  Con 


ductors  —  Fixing  the  Conduits  and  Running  Wires  in  Them  —  Drawing  Wires  into  Tubes  —  To 
Avoid  Shock.     IV.,  Lamps.  —  The  Incandescent  Lamp  —  Lamp  Holders  —  Lamp  Fittings  —  T 
Nernst  Lamp.    V.,  Switches,  Fuses,  Distribution  Boards,  etc.—  The  Electricity  Meter 


Avoid  Shock.     IV.,  Lamps.  —  The  Incandescent  Lamp  —  Lamp  Holders  —  Lamp  Fittings  —  The 
Nernst  Lamp.    V., 
Prepayment  Meters. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  DIPPING, 
BURNISHING,  LACQUERING  AND  BRONZING 
BRASS  WARE.  By  W.  NORMAN  BROWN.  35  pp.  Crown 
8vo.  Price  2s.  net.  (Post  free,  2s.  3d.  home  and  abroad.) 

THE  HISTORY  OF  INCANDESCENT  LAMPS.      By  G. 

BASIL  BARHAM,  A.M.  I.E.  E.     Illustrated.  rln  preparation. 


28 

A  HANDBOOK  ON  JAPANNING  AND  ENAMELLING 
FOR  CYCLES,  BEDSTEADS,  TINWARE,  ETC.  By 

WILLIAM   NORMAN   BROWN.      52   pp.    and    Illustrations.     Crown   8vo. 
Price  2s.  net.     (Post  free,  2s.  3d.  home  and  abroad.) 

THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    HOT    WATER    SUPPLY.      By 

JOHN  W.  HART,  R.P.C.      With  129  Illustrations.      177  pp.,  demy  8vo. 
Price  7s.  6d.  net.     (Post  free,  7s.  lOd.  home ;  8s.  abroad.) 

House  Decorating  and  Painting. 

THREE  HUNDRED  SHADES  AND  HOW  TO  MIX 
THEM.  For  Architects,  Painters  and  Decorators.  By  A. 
DESAINT,  Artistic  Interior  Decorator  of  Paris.  The  book  contains  100 
folio  Plates,  measuring  12  in.  by  7  in.,  each  Plate  containing  specimens 
of  three  artistic  shades.  These  shades  are  all  numbered,  and  their 
composition  and  particulars  for  mixing  are  fully  given  at  the  beginning 
of  the  book.  Each  Plate  is  interleaved  with  grease-proof  paper,  and 
the  volume  is  very  artistically  bound  in  art  and  linen,  with  the  Shield 
of  the  Painters'  Guild  impressed  on  the  cover  in  gold  and  silver.  Price 
21s.  net.  (Post  free,  21s.  6d.  home  ;  22s.  6d.  abroad.) 

HOUSE     DECORATING     AND     PAINTING.        By    W. 

NORMAN  BROWN.     Eighty-eight  Illustrations.      150  pp.      Crown  8vo. 
Price  3s.  6d.  net.     (Post  free,  3s.  9d.  home  and  abroad.) 

A   HISTORY   OF   DECORATIVE   ART.      By  W.  NORMAN 

BROWN.    Thirty-nine  Illustrations.    96  pp.     Crown  8vo.     Price  Is.  net. 
(Post  free,  Is.  3d.  home  and  abroad.) 

WORKSHOP  WRINKLES  for  Decorators,  Painters,  Paper- 
hangers  and  Others.  By  W.  N.  BROWN.  Crown  8vo.  128  pp.  Second 
Edition.  Price  2s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  2s.  9d.  home  ;  2s.  lOd.  abroad.) 

Brewing  and  Botanical. 

HOPS  IN  THEIR  BOTANICAL,  AGRICULTURAL 
AND  TECHNICAL  ASPECT,  AND  AS  AN  ARTICLE 
OF  COMMERCE.  By  EMMANUEL  GROSS,  Professor  at 
the  Higher  Agricultural  College,  Tetschen-Liebwerd.  Translated 
from  the  German.  Seventy-eight  Illustrations.  340  pp.  Demy  8vo. 
Price  10s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  11s.  home;  11s.  6d.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  HOP— THE  HOP  PLANT— Introductory— The  Roots— The  Stem— 
and  Leaves — Inflorescence  and  Flower :  Inflorescence  and  Flower  of  the  Male  Hop ;  In- 
florescence and  Flower  of  the  Female  Hop — The  Fruit  and  its  Glandular  Structure :  The 
Fruit  and  Seed— Propagation  and  Selection  of  the  Hop— Varieties  of  the  Hop:  (a)  Red  Hops; 
(b)  Green  Hops ;  (c)  Pale  Green  Hops — Classification  according  to  the  Period  of  Ripening : 
Early  August  Hops ;  Medium  Early  Hops ;  Late  Hops — Injuries  to  Growth — Leaves  Turning 
Yellow,  Summer  or  Sunbrand,  Cones  Dropping  Off,  Honey  Dew,  Damage  from  Wind,  Hail 
and  Rain  ;  Vegetable  Enemies  of  the  Hop:  Animal  Enemies  of  the  Hop — Beneficial  Insects  on 
Hops— CULTIVATION— The  Requirements  of  the  Hop  in  Respect  of  Climate,  Soil  and 
Situation :  Climate ;  Soil  :  Situation — Selection  of  Variety  and  Cuttings — Planting  a  Hop 
Garden  :  Drainage ;  Preparing  the  Ground ;  Marking-out  for  Planting ;  Planting ;  Cultivation 
and  Cropping  of  the  Hop  Garden  in  the  First  Year — Work  to  be  Performed  Annually  in  the 
Hop  Garden:  Working  the  Ground;  Cutting;  The  Non-cutting  System;  The  Proper  Per- 
formance of  the  Operation  of  Cutting :  Method  of  Cutting :  Close  Cutting,  Ordinary  Cutting, 
The  Long  Cut,  The  Topping  Cut;  Proper  Season  for  Cutting:  Autumn  Cutting,  Spring 
Cutting;  Manuring;  Training  the  Hop  Plant:  Poled  Gardens,  Frame  Training;  Principal 
Types  of  Frames  Pruning,  Cropping,  Topping,  and  Leaf  Stripping  the  Hop  Plant ;  Picking, 
Drying  and  Bagging — Principal  and  Subsidiary  Utilisation  of  Hops  and  Hop  Gardens — Life 
of  a  Hop  Garden ;  Subsequent  Cropping — Cost  of  Production,  Yield  and  Selling  Prices. 

Preservation  and  Storage— Physical  and  Chemical  Structure  of  the  Hop  Cone— Judging 
the  Value  of  Hops. 
Statistics  of  Production— The  Hop  Trade— Index. 


29 

Wood   Products,   Timber    and 
Wood  Waste. 

WOOD  PRODUCTS :  DISTILLATES  AND  EXTRACTS. 

By  P.  DUMESNY,  Chemical  Engineer,  Expert  before  the  Lyons  Com- 
mercial Tribunal,  Member  of  the  International  Association  of  Leather 
Chemists;  and  J.  NOYER.  Translated  from  the  French  by  DONALD 
GRANT.  Royal  8vo.  320  pp.  103  Illustrations  and  Numerous  Tables. 
Price  10s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  11s.  home  ;  11s.  6d.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Part  I.,  Wood  Distillation— Principal  Products  from  the  Carbonisation  of  Wood- 
Acetates— Secondary  Products  of  the  Distillation  of  Wood— Acetone— Analysis  of 
Raw  Materials  and  Finished  Products— Appendix —The  Destructive  Distillation  of  Olive 
Oil  Residuals.  Part  II.,  Manufacture  and  Testing  of  Tan  Wood  Extracts  and  their 
Utilisation  in  Modern  Tanneries— Plant  and  Equipment  for  Treating  Chestnut  Wood 
— Analysis  of  Tanning  Substances — The  Official  Method  of  the  International  Association 
of  Leather  Chemists,  with  Supplementary  Notes. 

TIMBER  :  A  Comprehensive  Study  of  Wood  in  all  its  Aspects 
(Commercial  and  Botanical),  showing  the  Different  Applications  and 
Uses  of  Timber  in  Various  Trades,  etc.  Translated  from  the  French 
of  PAUL  CHARPENTIER.  Royal  8vo.  437  pp.  178  Illustrations.  Price 
12s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  13s.  home  ;  14s.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Physical  and  Chemical  Properties  of  Timber— Composition  of  the  Vegetable  Bodies 
— Chief  Elements — M.  Fremy's  Researches — Elementary  Organs  of  Plants  and  especially  of 
Forests — Different  Parts  of  Wood  Anatomically  and  Chemically  Considered — General  Pro- 
perties of  Wood— Description  of  the  Different  Kinds  of  Wood— Principal  Essences  with 
Caducous  Leaves— Coniferous  Resinous  Trees— Division  of  the  Useful  Varieties  of  Timber 
in  the  Different  Countries  of  the  Globe — European  Timber — African  Timber — Asiatic 
Timber — American  Timber — Timber  of  Oceania — Forests — General  Notes  as  to  Forests  ;  their 
Influence — Opinions  as  to  Sylviculture — Improvement  of  Forests — Unwooding  and  Rewooding 
— Preservation  of  Forests — Exploitation  of  Forests — Damage  caused  to  Forests — Different 
Alterations— The  Preservation  of  Timber— Generalities— Causes  and  Progress  of  De- 
terioration— History  of  Different  Proposed  Processes — Dessication — Superficial  Carbonisation 
of  Timber — Processes  by  Immersion — Generalities  as  to  Antiseptics  Employed — Injection 
Processes  in  Closed  Vessels — The  Boucherie  System,  Based  upon  the  Displacement  of  the 
Sap— Processes  for  Making  Timber  Uninflammable— Applications  of  Timber— Generalities 
— Working  Timber — Paving — Timber  for  Mines — Railway  Traverses — Accessory  Products — 
Gums — Works  of  M.  Fremy — Resins — Barks — Tan — Application  of  Cork — The  Application  of 
Wood  to  Art  and  Dyeing— Different  Applications  of  Wood— Hard  Wood— Distillation  of 
Wood — Pyroligneous  Acid — Oil  of  Wood — Distillation  of  Resins — Index. 

THE  UTILISATION  OF  WOOD  WASTE.  Translated  from 
the  German  of  ERNST  HUBBARD.  Crown  8vo.  192  pp.  Fifty  Illustra- 
tions. Price  5s.  net.  (Post  free,  5s.  4d.  home  ;  5s.  6d.  abroad.) 

Building  and  Architecture. 

THE  PREVENTION  OF  DAMPNESS  IN  BUILDINGS; 

with  Remarks  on  the  Causes,  Nature  and  Effects  of  Saline,  Efflores- 
cences and  Dry-rot,  for  Architects,  Builders,  Overseers,  Plasterers, 
Painters  and  House  Owners.  By  ADOLF  WILHELM  KEIM.  Translated 
from  the  German  of  the  second  revised  Edition  by  M.  J.  SALTER,  F.I.C., 
F.C.S.  Eight  Coloured  Plates  and  Thirteen  Illustrations.  Crown  8vo. 
115  pp.  Price  5s.  net.  (Post  free,  5s.  3d.  home;  5s.  4d.  abroad.) 

HANDBOOK  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS  USED  IN  ARCHI- 
TECTURE AND  BUILDING,  AND  THEIR  ALLIED 
TRADES  AND  SUBJECTS.  By  AUGUSTINE  C.  PASSMORE, 
Demy  8vo.  380  pp.  Price  7s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  8s.  home  ;  8s,  6d. 
abroad.) 


30 

The  Preserving  of  Foods  and 
Sweetmeats. 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  PRESERVED  FOODS  AND 
SWEETMEATS.  By  A.  HAUSNER.  With  Twenty-eight 
Illustrations.  Translated  from  the  German  of  the  third  enlarged 
Edition.  Crown  8vo.  225  pp.  Price  7s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  7s.  9d. 
home;  7s.  lOd.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

The  Manufacture  of  Conserves— Introduction— The  Causes  of  the  Putrefaction  of  Food 
— The  Chemical  Composition  of  Foods — The  Products  of  Decomposition — The  Causes  of  Fer- 
mentation and  Putrefaction — Preservative  Bodies — The  Various  Methods  of  Preserving  Food 
— The  Preservation  of  Animal  Food — Preserving  Meat  by  Means  of  Ice — The  Preservation 
of  Meat  by  Charcoal — Preservation  of  Meat  by  Drying — The  Preservation  of  Meat  by  the 
Exclusion  of  Air — The  Appert  Method — Preserving  Flesh  by  Smoking — Quick  Smoking — Pre- 
serving Meat  with  Salt — Quick  Salting  by  Air  Pressure — Quick  Salting  by  Liquid  Pressure — 
Gamgee's  Method  of  Preserving  Meat — The  Preservation  of  Eggs — Preservation  of  White 
and  Yolk  of  Egg — Milk  Preservation — Condensed  Milk — The  Preservation  of  Fat — Manu- 
facture of  Soup  Tablets— Meat  Biscuits— Extract  of  Beef— The  Preservation  of  Vegetable 
Foods  in  General — Compressing  Vegetables — Preservation  of  Vegetables  by  Appert's  Method 
— The  Preservation  of  Fruit — Preservation  of  Fruit  by  Storage — The  Preservation  of  Fruit 
by  Drying — Drying  Fruit  by  Artificial  Heat — Roasting  Fruit — The  Preservation  of  Fruit  with 
Sugar — Boiled  Preserved  Fruit — The  Preservation  of  Fruit  in  Spirit,  Acetic  Acid  or  Glycerine 
— Preservation  of  Fruit  without  Boiling — Jam  Manufacture — The  Manufacture  of  Fruit 
Jellies — The  Making  of  Gelatine  Jellies — The  Manufacture  of  "  Sulzen  " — The  Preservation  of 
Fermented  Beverages — The  Manufacture  of  Candies — Introduction — The  Manufacture  of 
Candied  Fruit — The  Manufacture  of  Boiled  Sugar  and  Caramel — The  Candying  of  Fruit — 
Caramelised  Fruit — The  Manufacture  of  Sugar  Sticks,  or  Barley  Sugar — Bonbon  Making — 
Fruit  Drops — The  Manufacture  of  Dragees — The  Machinery  and  Appliances  used  in  Candy 
Manufacture — Dyeing  Candies  and  Bonbons — Essential  Oils  used  in  Candy  Making — Fruit 
Essences — The  Manufacture  of  Filled  Bonbons,  Liqueur  Bonbons  and  Stamped  Lozenges — 
Recipes  for  Jams  and  Jellies — Recipes  for  Bonbon  Making — Dragees — Appendix— Index. 

RECIPES  FOR  THE  PRESERVING  OF  FRUIT,  VEGE- 
TABLES   AND    MEAT.      By    E.    WAGNER.      Translated 
from  the  German.     Crown  8vo.     125pp.     With  14  Illustrations.     Price 
5s.  net.     (Post  free,  5s.  3d.  home;  5s.  4d.  abroad.) 
Contents, 

Part  I.  Preserved  Fruits. — Green  Almonds — Gooseberries — Strawberries — Currants — 
Cherries — Black  Nuts — White  Nuts—  Apricots — Greengages— Pears — Peaches — Plums — Figs — 
Melons — Apples — Chestnuts — Angelica — Pineapple.  Canned  Fruit. — Gooseberries — Cherries 
—Apricots— Plums— Rhubarb.  Glazed  and  Candied  Fruits.— Glazing  Fruit -Candied 
Fruit — Blue  Plums— Glazed  Chestnuts — Glazed  Pineapple  Slices — Crystallised  Strawberries. 
Marmalades,  Jams  and  Fruit  Juices. — Strawberry  Marmalade — Cherry  Marmalade — 
Jams — Fruit  Jellies — Raspberry  Juice — Cherry  Juice— Lemon  Syrup — Pineapple  Juice.  Fruit 
Pulp  for  Ices.  Citron  Peel  and  Orange  Peel.  Part  II.  Preserved  Vegetables.— 
Asparagus — Peas — Beans — Carrots — Spinach — Artichokes — Tomatoes — Mixed  Vegetables — 
Tinned  Julienne — Celery — Mushrooms — Truffles — Pickled  Gherkins — Gherkins  in  Mustard — 
Mixed  Pickles.  Part  III.  Preserved  Meats.— Veal  Cutlets— Fricondeau  of  Veal— Calves 
Head — Bouillon  Meat — Ox  Tongue — Beef  a  la  Mode — Roast  Hare — Roast  Venison — Mutton 
and  Cabbage— Savoury  Paste— Beef  Paste— Foie  Gras  Paste. 

FOODS  AND  DRUGS.  Volume  I.,  Chemistry  and  Analysis 
of  Foods  and  Drugs.  Volume  II.,  Law  Relating  to  Foods  and  Drugs. 
By  E.  J.  PARRY,  B.Sc.  (Lond.).  [In  preparation. 

Dyeing  Fancy  Goods. 

THE  ART  OF  DYEING  AND  STAINING  MARBLE, 
ARTIFICIAL  STONE,  BONE,  HORN,  IVORY  AND 
WOOD,  AND  OF  IMITATING  ALL  SORTS  OF 
WOOD.  A  Practical  Handbook  for  the  Use  of  Joiners, 
Turners,  Manufacturers  of  Fancy  Goods,  Stick  and  Umbrella  Makers, 
Comb  Makers,  etc.  Translated  from  the  German  of  D.  H.  SOXHLET, 
Technical  Chemist.  Crown  8vo.  168  pp.  Price  5s  net.  Post  free, 
5s.  3d.  home  ;  5s.  4d.  abroad.) 


31 


Celluloid. 


CELLULOID  :  Its  Raw  Material,  Manufacture,  Properties  and 
Uses.  A  Handbook  for  Manufacturers  of  Celluloid  and  Celluloid 
Articles,  and  all  Industries  using  Celluloid  ;  also  for  Dentists  and 
Teeth  Specialists.  By  Dr.  Fr.  BOCKMANN,  Technical  Chemist.  Trans- 
lated from  the  Third  Revised  German  Edition.  Crown  8vo.  120  pp. 
With  49  Illustrations.  Price  5s.  net.  (Post  free,  5s.  3d.  home  ;  5s.  4d. 
abroad.) 

Contents. 

Chapters  I.,  Raw  Materials  for  the  Manufacture  of  Celluloid  :  Cellulose  and  Pyroxylin 
— Gun-cotton — Properties  of  Gun-cotton — Special  Gun-cottons  for  Celluloid  Manufacture — 
Nitrating  Centrifugalisers— Collodion  Wool — Methods  of  Preparing  Collodion  Wool — Cam- 
phor—  Japanese  (Formosa)  Camphor,  O-dinary  Camphor  —  Borneo  Camphor  (Borneol), 
Sumatra  Camphor,  Camphol,  Baros  Camphor) — Properties  of  Camphor — Artificial  Camphor 
— Camphor  Substitutes.  II,,  The  Manufacture  of  Celluloid;  Manufacturing  Camphor  by 
the  Aid  of  Heat  and  Pressure — Manufacture  of  Celluloid  by  Dissolving  Gun-cotton  in  an 
Alcoholic  Solution  of  Camphor — Preparing  Celluloid  by  the  Cold  Process — Preparation  with 
an  Ethereal  Solution  of  Camphor— Preparation  with  a  Solution  of  Camphor  and  Wood 
Spirit.  III.,  The  Employment  of  Pyroxylin  for  Artificial  Silk  :  Denitrating 
and  Colouring  Pyroxylin  —  Uninflammable  Celluloid  —  Celluloid  and  Cork  Composition — 
Incombustible  Celluloid  Substitute  —  Xylonite  or  Fibrolithoid.  IV.,  Properties  of 
Celluloid.  V.,  Testing  Celluloid.  VI.,  Application  and  Treatment  of  Celluloid: 
Caoutchouc  Industry  —  Making  Celluloid  Ornaments  —  Working  by  the  Cold  Process  — 
Working  by  the  Warm  Process — Celluloid  Combs — Celluloid  as  a  Basis  for  Artificial 
Teeth  —  Stained  Celluloid  Sheets  as  a  Substitute  for  Glass  —  Celluloid  Printing  Blocks 
and  Stamps— Collapsible  Seamless  Vessels  of  Celluloid— Making  Celluloid  Balls— Celluloid 
Posters — Pressing  Hollow  Celluloid  Articles — Casting  Celluloid  Articles — Method  for  Pro- 
ducing Designs  on  Plates  or  Sheets  of  Celluloid,  Xylonite,  etc.— Imitation  Tortoiseshell — 
Metallic  Incrustations — Imitation  Florentine  Mosaic — Celluloid  Collars  and  Cuffs — Phono- 
graph Cylinder  Composition — Making  Umbrella  and  Stick  Handles  of  Celluloid  —  Celluloid 
Dolls— Celluloid  for  Ships'  Bottoms— Celluloid  Pens— Colouring  Finished  Celluloid  Articles- 
Printing  on  Celluloid — Employment  of  Celluloid  (and  Pyroxylin)  in  Lacquer  Varnishes— Index 

Lithography,    Printing    and 
Engraving. 

PRACTICAL     LITHOGRAPHY.       By     ALFRED     SEYMOUR. 
Demy  8vo.      With    Frontispiece   and  33  Illus.        120  pp.       Price  5s. 
net.     (Post  free,  5s.  4d.  home ;  5s.  6d.  abroad.) 
Contents. 

Stones— Transfer  Inks— Transfer  Papers— Transfer  Printing— Litho  Press— Press  Work- 
Machine  Printing — Colour  Printing — Substitutes  for  Lithographic  Stones — Tin  Plate  Printing 
and  Decoration — Photo-Lithography. 

PRINTERS'  AND  STATIONERS'  READY  RECKONER 
AND  COMPENDIUM.  Compiled  by  VICTOR  GRAHAM. 
Crown  8vo.  112  pp.  1904.  Price  3s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  3s.  9d.  home ; 
3s.  lOd.  abroad.) 

Contents. 

Price  of  Paper  per  Sheet,  Quire,  Ream  and  Lb. — Cost  of  100  to  1000  Sheets  at  various 
Sizes  and  Prices  per  Ream— Cost  of  Cards— Quantity  Table— Sizes  and  Weights  of  Paper, 
Cards,  etc. — Notes  on  Account  Books — Discount  Tables — Sizes  of  spaces  —  Leads  to  a  Ib. — 
Dictionary — Measure  for  Bookwork — Correcting  Proofs,  etc. 

ENGRAVING  FOR  ILLUSTRATION.  HISTORICAL 
AND  PRACTICAL  NOTES.  By  J.  KIRKBRIDE.  72  pp. 
Two  Plates  and  6  Illustrations.  Crown  8vo.  Price  2s.  6d.  net.  (Post 
free,  2s.  9d.  home;  2s.  lOd.  abroad.) 

TINPLATE  PRINTING.     By  ALFRED  SEYMOUR.     Crown  8vo. 

[In  preparation. 

Bookbinding. 

PRACTICAL  BOOKBINDING.  By  PAUL  ADAM.  Translated 
from  the  German.  Crown  8vo.  180  pp.  127  Illustrations.  Price  5s. 
net.  (Post  free,  5s.  4d.  home  ;  5s.  6d.  abroad.) 


32 


Sugar  Refining. 


THE  TECHNOLOGY  OF  SUGAR  :  Practical  Treatise  on 
the  Modern  Methods  of  Manufacture  of  Sugar  from  the  Sugar  Cane  and 
Sugar  Beet.  By  JOHN  GEDDES  MC!NTOSH.  Second  Revised  and 
Enlarged  Edition.  DemySvo.  Fully  Illustrated.  436pp.  Seventy-six 
Tables.  1906.  Price  10s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free,  11s.  home;  11s.  6d. 
abroad.) 

(See  "  Evaporating,  Condensing,  etc.,  Apparatus,"  p.  26.) 

Libraries  and  Bibliography. 

CLASSIFIED  GUIDE  TO  TECHNICAL  AND  COM- 
MERCIAL BOOKS.  Compiled  by  EDGAR  GREENWOOD. 
Demy  8vo.  224  pp.  1904.  Being  a  Subject-list  of  the  Principal 
British  and  American  Books  in  print ;  giving  Title,  Author,  Size,  Date, 
Publisher  and  Price.  Price  5s.  net.  (Post  free,  5s.  4d.  home ;  5s.  6d. 
abroad.) 

HANDBOOK  TO  THE  TECHNICAL  AND  ART 
SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES  OF  THE  UNITED 
KINGDOM.  Containing  particulars  of  nearly  1,000  Techni- 
cal, Commercial  and  Art  Schools  throughout  the  United  Kingdom. 
With  full  particulars  of  the  courses  of  instruction,  names  of  principals, 
secretaries,  etc.  Demy  8vo.  150  pp.  Price  3s.  6d.  net.  (Post  free, 
3s.  lOd.  home  ;  4s.  abroad.) 

THE  LIBRARIES,  MUSEUMS  AND  ART  GALLERIES 
YEAR  BOOK,  1910-11.  Being  the  Third  Edition  of  Green- 
wood's "British  Library  Year  Book".  Edited  by  ALEX.  J.  PHILIP. 
DemySvo.  286pp.  Price5s.net.  (Post  free,  5s.  4d.  home;  5s.  6d. 
abroad.)  [Just  published. 

Contents. 

Preface— Introduction— Chronological  List  of  Adoptions  of  the  Libraries  Acts— Public 
Libraries  Assessed  for  the  Payment  of  Rates— Special  Collections  of  Books  in  Libraries, 
Museums  and  Art  Galleries — Alphabetical  Index  to  Librarians,  Curators  and  Assistants — 
Architects  who  have  Designed  Public  Libraries— Libraries,  Museums  and  Art  Galleries  in  the 
United  Kingdom— Women  Librarians  Occupying  Chief  Positions— Women  Assistants- 
Methods  of  Charging  or  of  Issuing  Books— Classifications  in  Use— Public  Libraries  Opening 
on  Sundays— Public  Libraries  Opening  on  Bank  Holidays— Public  Libraries  in  which  Betting 
News  is  Obliterated— Public  Libraries  Publishing  Magazines,  Bulletins,  etc. 

THE  PLUMBING^ HEATING  AND  LIGHTING 
ANNUAL  FOR  1911.  The  Trade  Reference  Book  for 
Plumbers  Sanitary,  Heating  and  Lighting  Engineers,  Builders'  Mer- 
chants, Contractors  and  Architects.  Quarto.  Bound  in  cloth  and  gilt 
lettered.  (Published  in  December,  1910.)  Price  3s.  net.  (Post  free, 
3s.  4d.  home ;  3s.  8d.  abroad.) 

SCOTT  GREENWOOD  &,  SON, 

Gecbnical  JBoofc  anD   Grafce  journal   publtsbers, 

8  BROADWAY,  LUDGATE  HILL, 
LONDON,  E.G. 

Telegraphic  Address,  "  Printeries,  London  ".  Telephone,  Bank  5403. 

January,  1911. 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
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THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
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DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
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